Lifelong learning (LLL) is progressively recognized as a crucial component of personal and professional development, particularly for adult students. As a heavily populated developing country, China requires profound national education reform to support its economic development and maintain its competitive advantage on the global economic stage. The governmental policy endorses the execution of diverse forms of lifelong learning programs to bolster the national education reform. However, implementing such programs can be challenging for all the stakeholders of the programs, especially for adult students. The weaker foundational knowledge and insufficient online learning abilities of adult students particularly highlight the academic challenges they face. This study explores the academic challenges faced by adult learners in a Chinese vocational college’s LLL program. Focusing on ex-soldiers, unemployed individuals, migrant workers, and new professional farmers (aged 22–44), data were collected from 16 adult students via purposive sampling. Semi-structured interviews and document analysis revealed recurring thematic academic challenges. Additionally, the study found that adult student attributes (highest education level, age) significantly influenced the unique academic challenges they encountered. This research provides practical solutions to improve LLL programs and promote successful lifelong learning experiences for adult students. 

Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social constructivism. Journal of social sciences, literature and languages, 1(1), 9-16.

Baharudin, S. N. A., Murad, M., & Mat, N. H. H. (2013). Challenges of Adult Learners: A Case Study of Full Time Postgraduates Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 90, 772–781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.151

Barrouillet, P. (2015). Theories of cognitive development: From Piaget to today. Developmental Review, 38, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.07.004

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-Translation for Cross-Cultural Research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1(3), 185–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100301

Chen, H., & Boore, J. R. (2009). Translation and back‐translation in qualitative nursing research: methodological review. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 19(1–2), 234–239. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2009.02896.x

Coman, C., Țîru, L. G., Meseșan-Schmitz, L., et al. (2020). Online Teaching and Learning in Higher Education during the Coronavirus Pandemic: Students’ Perspective. Sustainability, 12(24), 10367. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410367

Cope, D. G. (2013). Methods and Meanings: Credibility and Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research. Oncology Nursing Forum, 41(1), 89–91. https://doi.org/10.1188/14.onf.89-91

Creswell, J., & Poth, C. (2012). Second Edition Qualitative Inquiry& Research Design Choosing Among Five Approaches. In Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, 3(6).

Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as Learners. Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning.

Deggs, D. (2014). Contextualizing the Perceived Barriers of Adult Learners in an Accelerated Undergraduate Degree Program. The Qualitative Report, 16(6). https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2011.1316

Denzin, N. K. (2017). The Research Act. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315134543

Devi, K. S. (2019). Constructivist Approach to Learning based on the Concepts of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Journal of Indian Education, 44(4).

Dhawan, S. (2020). Online Learning: A Panacea in the Time of COVID-19 Crisis. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018

Ekstrom, R. B. (1972). Barriers to women’s participation in post‐secondary education1. ETS Research Bulletin Series, 1972(2). Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2333-8504.1972.tb00821.x

Fei, Z. (2002). Comparison between constructivism and traditional cognitive learning theory (Chinese). Journal of Changshu College, (06), 45-47. https//doi.org/10.16101/j.cnki.cn32-1749/z.2002.06.017.

Forrest, S. P., & Peterson, T. O. (2006). It’s Called Andragogy. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5(1), 113–122. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2006.20388390

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology: Putting theory into practice. Pearson UK.

Huang, Q. (2021). Research on the strategy of teaching quality assurance to new learners under the background of enrollment expansion—Taking accounting major in Higher Vocational Colleges as an example (Chinese). Chinese Vocational and Technical Education, (32), 84-90.

Jackson, K., & Bazeley, P. (2019). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo. Sage.

Kara, M., Erdoğdu, F., Kokoç, M., et al. (2019). Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Online Distance Education: A Literature Review. Open Praxis, 11(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.11.1.929

Karatas, K., & Arpaci, I. (2021). The Role of Self-directed Learning, Metacognition, and 21st Century Skills Predicting the Readiness for Online Learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 13(3), ep300. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/10786

Kauffman, H. (2015). A review of predictive factors of student success in and satisfaction with online learning. Research in Learning Technology, 23. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v23.26507

Kenner, C., & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult Learning Theory: Applications to Non-Traditional College Students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/10790195.2011.10850344

Khadidja, K. (2020). Constructivist Theories of Piaget and Vygotsky: Implications for Pedagogical Practices. Psychological & Educational Studies, 13(3), 359-372.

Knowles, M. S. (1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult leadership, 16(10), 350-352.

Knowles, M. S. (1977). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy, 8th ed. New York: Association Press.

Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. FT press.

Kruszelnicki, W. (2019). Self-Directedness and the Question of Autonomy: From Counterfeit Education to Critical and Transformative Adult Learning. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 39(2), 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-019-09697-6

Lester, J. N., Cho, Y., & Lochmiller, C. R. (2020). Learning to Do Qualitative Data Analysis: A Starting Point. Human Resource Development Review, 19(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484320903890

Li, C. & Li, J. (2020). Exploration and Reflection on solving the difficult problems of localizing enrollment expansion policy in Higher Vocational Colleges (Chinese). Chinese Vocational and Technical Education, (25), 42-48.

Liu, C. C., & Chen, I. J. (2010). Evolution Of Constructivism. Contemporary Issues in Education Research (CIER), 3(4), 63. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v3i4.199

MacKeracher, D., Suart, T., & Potter, J. (2006). State of the field report: Barriers to participation in adult learning. World Wide Web.

Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2020). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. John Wiley & Sons.

Merriam, S. B., & Bierema, L. L. (2013). Adult learning: Linking theory and practice. John Wiley & Sons.

Mezirow, J. (1985). A critical theory of self‐directed learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1985(25), 17–30. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.36719852504

Nasah, A., DaCosta, B., Kinsell, C., et al. (2010). The digital literacy debate: an investigation of digital propensity and information and communication technology. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(5), 531–555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-010-9151-8

Nguyen, H. C. (2012). California community college educational leaders’ perceptions of Lifelong learning. Available online: https://www.proquest.com/docview/1024157124/fulltextPDF/22B058E310A14E98PQ/1?accountid=27783 (accessed on 3 May 2023).

O’Grady, A. (2013). Lifelong Learning in the UK: An introductory guide for Education Studies. Routledge.

Pandey, D., & Sharma, P. S. (2020). Distance Learning in Higher Education during Pandemic: Challenges and Opportunities. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 8(2), 25-28. https://doi.org/10.25215/0802.204

Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education. Grossman, New York.

Potter, J. & Alderman, T. E. (1992). A profile of adult learners at the University of New Brunswick. University of New Brunswick, Department of Extension and Summer Session.

Refae, G. A. El, Kaba, A., & Eletter, S. (2021). Distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic: satisfaction, opportunities and challenges as perceived by faculty members and students. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 18(3), 298–318. https://doi.org/10.1108/itse-08-2020-0128

Su, B. (2009). China’s Lifelong Education: In Comparison with United States’ Lifelong Education. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.3860/taper.v18i1.1038

Sun, F. (2021). Challenges and Countermeasures of talent classification training in Higher Vocational Colleges under the background of “enrollment expansion” (Chinese). Communication of Vocational Education, (04), 46-53.

Tynjälä, P. (2012). Toward a 3-P Model of Workplace Learning: a Literature Review. Vocations and Learning, 6(1), 11–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-012-9091-z

UNESCO Institution for Lifelong Learning. (2022). Lifelong learning: Our approach. Available online: https://preprod.uil.unesco.org/unesco-institute/mandate/lifelong-learning (accessed on 3 May 2023).

UNESCO. (2020). Distance learning strategies in response to COVID-19 school closures. Available online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373305?posInSet=1&queryId=dc3a3e51- 4811-46a3-a1b4-b47dfd80f875 (accessed on 3 May 2023).

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between Learning and Development. In: Gauvain, M., Cole, M. (editors). Mind and Society. Harvard University Press.

Wang, N. (2021). Research on the current situation of the implementation of “million enrollment expansion” policy in Higher Vocational Colleges (Chinese). The Light & Textile Industries of Fujian, (10), 56-62.

Wang, V. C., & Parker, J. (2014). Aprendizaje a lo largo de la vida en China. Revista Internacional de Organizaciones, 0(12), 71. https://doi.org/10.17345/rio12.71-88

Wood, L., Sebar, B., & Vecchio, N. (2020). Application of Rigour and Credibility in Qualitative Document Analysis: Lessons Learnt from a Case Study. The Qualitative Report. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2020.4240

Yan, G. & Ke, J. (2020). Discuss on the promotion and improvement of enrollment expansion policy in Higher Vocational Colleges -- Thinking from the perspective of policy science (Chinese). Higher Education Exploration, (09), 100-106.

Zhang, W. (2008). Conceptions of lifelong learning in Confucian culture: their impact on adult learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 27(5), 551–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370802051561