Access to clean water and improved sanitation are basic elements of any meaningful discourse in rural development. They are critical challenges for achieving sustainable development over the next decade. This paper seeks to examine the strategies for improving access to clean water and sanitation in Nigerian rural communities. Hypothetically, the paper states that there is no significant relationship between access to clean water and sanitation and the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 6 in Nigeria. The paper leverages Resilience Theory. The survey research design was adopted, and primary data was obtained from a sample size of 250 respondents, proportionally drawn from the 10 wards in Obanliku local government area of Cross River State. The chi-square statistical technique was to test the hypothesis. The result shows that the calculated value of Chi-square (X²) is 24.4. Since the P-value of 21.03 is less than the level of significance (0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate accepted. The study concludes that there is a significant relationship between access to clean water and sanitation and the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 6 in Cross River State, Nigeria. it recommends the need for more commitment on the part of government and international donor agencies in expanding access to clean water and improved sanitation in Nigeria.

Ackerman, R. H., Maslin-Ostrowski, P. (2002). The wounded leader: How real leadership emerges in times of crisis. Jossey-Bass.

Adeoti, O. (2007). Challenges to managing water resources along the hydrological boundaries in Nigeria. Water Policy, 9(1), 105–118. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2006.002

Adesogan, S. (2018). Assessment of Sustainable Development Goals 6.1 and 6.2 in rural small communities of Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of Global Ecology and Environment, 8, 104–111.

Akpabio, E. M. (2012). Water Supply and Sanitation Services Sector in Nigeria: The Policy Trend and Practice Constraints. University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF).

Awuah, E., Nyarko, K. B., Owusu, P. A., et al. (2009). Small town water quality. Desalination, 248(1–3), 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.087

Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive After Extremely Aversive Events? American Psychologist, 59(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.20

Carter, R. C., Tyrrel, S. F., & Howsam, P. (1999). The Impact and Sustainability of Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes in Developing Countries. Water and Environment Journal, 13(4), 292–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1999.tb01050.x

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Assessing Access to Water & Sanitation. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/assessing (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Checkley, W., Buckley, G., Gilman, R. H., et al. (2008). Multi-country analysis of the effects of diarrhoea on childhood stunting. International Journal of Epidemiology, 37(4), 816–830. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn099

Cross River State. (2021). Obanliku Local Government Area. Available online: https://kekerete.tripod.com/CRSG/obanliku.html (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2017). UN 17 Sustainable Development Goals. Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Ensink, J. (2008). Health Impact of Handwashing with Soap. WELL, Factsheet. Quality Assurance Val Curtis. WELL. Available online: http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/Handwashing.htm (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Esrey, S. A. (1996). Water, Waste, and Well-Being: A Multicountry Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143(6), 608–623. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a008791

Eteng, I. (2023). Slow But Steady Progress: Inside Nigeria’s Effort to End Open Defecation. Prime Progress.

Ewepu, G. (2024). The Federal Ministry of Water Resources to spend N12, 905, 656 on implementation of Water Resource Master Plan out of N179,873,461,012 allocated to the Ministry’s headquarters from the 2023 budgetary allocation of N242, 221, 862, 674 for the entire Ministry, Departments and Agencies, MDAs. Vanguard.

Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR). (2000). National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy. Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR). Department of Water Supply and Quality Control.

Fewtrell, L., Prüss-Üstün, A., Bos, R., et al. (2007). Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: Quantifying the health impact at national and local levels in countries with incomplete water supply and sanitation coverage. WHO Environmental Burden of Disease Series no 15, World Health Organization.

Fotso, J., Ezeh, A. C., Madise, N. J., & Ciera, J. (2007). Progress towards the child mortality millennium development goal in urban sub-Saharan Africa: The dynamics of population growth, immunization, and access to clean water. BMC Public Health, 7, 218.

Humphrey, J. (2009). Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. The Lancet, 374, 1032–35.

Hutton, G., Haller, L., & Bartram, J. (2007). Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions. Journal of Water and Health, 5(4), 481–502. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.009

IRC. (2007). Towards Effective Programming for WASH in Schools: A manual on scaling up programmes for water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools. IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Ihezie, E., Obaniyi, F. (2023). The importance of clean Water and Sanitation in Nigeria. Southern Voice.

Jamison, D. T., Breman, J. G., Measham, A. R., et al. (2006). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, 2nd ed. Oxford UP.

Jefferson, T., Del Mar, C., Dooley, L., et al. (2009). Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses: Systematic review. BMJ, 339.

Kumwenda, S. (2017). Challenges to hygiene improvement in developing countries. Intech Open, (1), 1–19.

Luby, S. P., Agboatwalla, M., Feikin, D. R., et al. (2005). Effect of handwashing on child health: A randomized controlled trial. The Lancet, 366(9481), 225-233.

Matto, M., Singhal, S. (2020). COVID-19 and SDG 6 Goals: All That We Need to Learn and Do. Down to Earth.

Metwally, A. M., Ibrahim, N. A., Saad, A., & Abu El-Ela, M. H. (2006). Improving the roles of rural women in health and environmental issues. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 16(2), 133-144.

NBS and ICF International. (2013). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. NBS and ICF.

Nigeria National Urban Water Sector Reform Program (2021). Nigeria: Ensuring Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/05/26/nigeria-ensuring-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-for-all (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Njuguna, V., Karanja, B., Thuranira, M., et al. (2008). The sustainability and impact of school sanitation, water, and hygiene education in Kenya. IRC & UNICEF.

Nwankwoala, H. O. (2011). Localizing the strategy for achieving rural water supply and sanitation in Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 5(13). https://doi.org/10.5897/ajestx11.011

Okuku, M. O. (2020). Policy Brief: Ending Open Defecation in Nigeria. International Journal of Tropical Disease & Health, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijtdh/2020/v41i1930387

Onuoha-Ogwe, I. (2021). A cleaner state starts with the use of toilets, Cross River State insists. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/stories/cleaner-state-starts-use-toilets-cross-river-state-insists (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Owolabi. B. O. (2017). Household Access to Improved Water and Sanitation Facilities in Ondo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Environmental Science, 3(3), 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.20431/2454-9444.0303005

Redhouse, D. (2004). No water, no school. Available online: http://www.wateraid.org/international/about_us/oasis/springsummer_04/default.asp (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Rhee, V., Mullany, L. C., Khatry, S. K., et al. (2008). Maternal and Birth Attendant Hand Washing and Neonatal Mortality in Southern Nepal. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 162(7), 603. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.162.7.603

Root, R. Q. (2021). Nigeria Is Finally Getting Serious about WASH. Available online: https://www.devex.com/news/q-a-nigeria-is-finally-getting-serious-about-wash-96344 (accessed on 9 March 2021).

Self Help Africa. (2020). Rural Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion in Nigeria (RUSHPIN). Available online: https://selfhelpafrica.org/ie/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2023/05/Sanitation-in-Challenging-Context_A-Case-Study_Belegete_SHA-UP-2023.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Sanitation and Water for All. (2011). Available online: http://www.sanitationandwaterforall.org/home.html (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Schleicher, J., Schaafsma, M., & Vira, B. (2018). Will the Sustainable Development Goals address the links between poverty and the natural environment? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 34, 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.09.004

Shehu, B., & Nazim, F. (2022). Clean Water and Sanitation for All: Study on SDGs 6.1 and 6.2 Targets with State Policies and Interventions in Nigeria. The 9th International Conference on Sustainable Development. https://doi.org/10.3390/environsciproc2022015071

Sustainable Development Goals Report. (2023). Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all. Available online: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/ (accessed on 2 January 2024).

UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report 2006: Beyond scarcity: power, poverty, and the global water crisis. UNDP.

UNGEI. (2003). A Fair Chance: attaining gender equality in basic education by 2005. Global Campaign for Education.

UNICEF. (2006). Progress for Children: a report card on water and sanitation. UNICEF.

UNICEF. (2022). Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH). Available online: https://www.unicef.org/wash (accessed on 2 January 2024).

UN-Water. (2009). Sanitation contributes to dignity and social development. Available online: http://www.unwater.org/downloads/media/sanitation/iys/FactsheetNo.3_EN_2009.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

United Purpose. (2023). Sanitation Progress in Tough Physical Terrain—A Case Study of Belegete Community in Obanliku LGA of Cross River State, Nigeria. Available online: https://selfhelpafrica.org/ie/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2023/05/Sanitation-in-Challenging-Context_A-Case-Study_Belegete_SHA-UP-2023.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

United States Agency for International Development. (2015). Water and Development Country Plan for Nigeria. Available online: https://www.globalwaters.org/sites/default/files/Nigeria%20Country%20Plan%20final.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Van Rooijen, D. J., Biggs, T. W., Smout, I., & Drechsel, P. (2009). Urban growth, wastewater production and use in irrigated agriculture: a comparative study of Accra, Addis Ababa, and Hyderabad. Irrigation Drainage Systems, 24, 53-64.

Waddington, H., Snilstveit, B., White, H., & Fewtrell, L. (2009). Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to combat childhood diarrhea in developing countries. Synthetic Review.

Water and Sanitation Program Nigeria. (2012). Economic Impacts of Poor Sanitation in Africa: Nigeria Loses NGN455 Billion Annually Due to Poor Sanitation 2012. Available online: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/855961468297356898/pdf/681260WSP0ESI0000Box367907B0PUBLIC0.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

Water and Sanitation Program. (2011). The economic impacts of inadequate sanitation in India. Available online: http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/wsp-esi-india.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

WHO. (1992). Our Planet, Our Health: Report of the World Health Organisation Commission on Health and Environment Geneva, Health Organisation.

WHO. (2002). World Health Report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. WHO Press.

WHO. (2006). Meeting the MDG drinking water and sanitation target: The urban and rural challenge of the decade. Available online: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmpfinal.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

WHO. (2008). Guidelines for Drinking—Water Quality, 3rd ed. WHO.

WHO. (2023). Available online: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241595759_eng.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).

WHO & UNICEF. (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2010 update. WHO Press.

WHO & UNICEF. (2010). Joint monitoring report: Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water. Available online: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/fast_facts/en/index.html (accessed on 2 January 2024).

WHO. (2010). UN-Water Global Annual Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking Water (GLAAS) 2010: Targeting resources for better results. WHO Press.

World Bank. (2024). Improving Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in Nigeria. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/05/26/nigeria-ensuring-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-for-all#:~:text=In%20recent%20years%2C%20the%20Government,Nigeria’s%20Water%20Supply%2C%20Sanitation%2C%20and (accessed on 2 January 2024).