The effects of climate change are recognized globally. This study hypothesizes that climate change impacts are a complex system that creates a ripple effect on water security, food security, and economic security. Ultimately, those domains simultaneously exacerbate climate change effects and produce national security concerns. The study’s framework uses a transdisciplinary team’s quantitative and qualitative approach to evaluate the challenges and possible solutions to climate change security on the Water–Food–Socioeconomic Nexus. Iraq has been taken as a case study highlighting the deficits in management and governance. The dynamic of the ripple effect shows the interventions for each sector’s water-food-socioeconomic and security that collectively impact upon each other over time. The radical shift in the political infrastructure after 2003 from a centralized to a decentralized one without proper preparation is one of the root causes of the governance and management anarchy. About 228 state and non-state actors are involved in decision-making, leaving it fragile and unsustainable. Only 1% of the national budget is allocated to both the Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of Agriculture, which leaves no capacity to mitigate the risk of climate change impact.

A. Rasheed, S., & Al-Adili, A. (2016). Sprinkler Irrigation Systems and Water Saving, A Case Study from South of Iraq. Engineering and Technology Journal, 34(4), 769–786. https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.34.4a.8

Abbas, A. K., Flori, R. E., & Alsaba, M. (2019). Stability Analysis of Highly Deviated Boreholes to Minimize Drilling Risks and Nonproductive Time. Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 141(8). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4042733

Abdulla, R. (2015). More than 90 percent of Kurdistan’s food is imported. RUDAW.

Abed, F. G., Al-Salihi, A. M., Rajab, J. M. (2018). Spatiotemporal monitoring of methane over Iraq during 2003-2015: retrieved from Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS). ARPN J Eng Appl Sci, 13, 8650–8663.

Adam-Bradford, A., Elkahlout, G., Byrne, R., et al. (2020). Stabilisation agriculture: reviewing an emerging concept with case studies from Afghanistan and Iraq. CABI Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1079/pavsnnr202015042

Agrawala, S. (1998). Structural and process history of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climatic Change, 39(4), 621–642. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005312331477

Ahmad, P. (2015). The Role of Government in Stimulating Public Service Innovation (Case study Iraq) Rich Oil developing country which is less innovative in the twenty first century.

Ajaaj, A. A., Mishra, A. K., & Khan, A. A. (2015). Comparison of BIAS correction techniques for GPCC rainfall data in semi-arid climate. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 30(6), 1659–1675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-015-1155-9

Alex Cornell du Houx (2021). Alex Cornell du Houx: Maine can’t wait for climate action. Available online: https://www.sunjournal.com/2021/11/07/alex-cornell-du-houx-maine-cant-wait-for-climate-action/ (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Al-Faraj, F. A. M., & Al-Dabbagh, B. N. S. (2015). Assessment of collective impact of upstream watershed development and basin-wide successive droughts on downstream flow regime: The Lesser Zab transboundary basin. Journal of Hydrology, 530, 419–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.09.074

Al-Faraj, F. A. M., Tigkas, D., & Scholz, M. (2016). Irrigation Efficiency Improvement for Sustainable Agriculture in Changing Climate: A Transboundary Watershed Between Iraq and Iran. Environmental Processes, 3(3), 603–616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-016-0148-0

Al-Hamdani, F. Z. (2013). Water pollution in Iraq between disastrous border and no real solutions. A study. J Genet Environ Resour Conserv, 1, 111–118.

AlKafaji, Y., & Mahmood, H. S. (2019). Iraq’s budgetary practices post US invasion: a critical evaluation. Public Money & Management, 39(7), 478–485. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2019.1583888

Almahmood, H. K. (2019). Water Resources in Basra and its Recent Problems.

Al-Maleki, Y., Harry, I. (2018). 2018 Annual Report Riding the Oil Markets: Iraq’s Economy in Transition. Iraq Energy Inst.

Al-Marashi, I., & Causevic, A. (2020). NATO and Collective Environmental Security in the MENA: From the Cold War to Covid-19. Journal of Strategic Security, 13(4), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.13.4.1804

Al-mohammed, M. A., Ulutagay, G., & Alabdraba, W. M. S. (2022). The reality of solid waste management in Iraq and ways of development. Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences, 28(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.25130/tjes.28.3.01

Al-Muqdadi, S. W. H. (2019). Developing Strategy for Water Conflict Management and Transformation at Euphrates–Tigris Basin. Water, 11(10), 2037. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102037

Al-Muqdadi, S. W. H. (2022). The Spiral of Escalating Water Conflict: The Theory of Hydro-Politics. Water, 14(21), 3466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213466

Al-Muqdadi, S. W. H., Khalaifawi, A., Abdulrahman, B., et al. (2021). Exploring the challenges and opportunities in the Water, Energy, Food nexus for Arid Region. Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems, 9(4), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.13044/j.sdewes.d8.0355

Al-Musawi S, Keshavarz Moraveji M, Adnan M, Jawad M (2019) Application of streamlines for improved waterflood management of iraqi’s reservoir. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 579(1), 012035. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/579/1/012035

Al-Obaidi, J. R., Yahya Allawi, M., Salim Al-Taie, B., et al. (2022). The environmental, economic, and social development impact of desertification in Iraq: a review on desertification control measures and mitigation strategies. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10102-y

Al-Obaidy, A., Al-Khateeb, M. (2013). The Challenges of Water Sustainability in Iraq. Engineering and Technology Journal, 31(5A), 828–840. https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.31.5a3

Al-Rubaie, Q. L. A., Ahmed, A. S. (2021). Measuring and analyzing the repercussions of public debt in financing the general budget deficit for the Iraqi economy after 2003 using the (Eviews) program. Mater Today Proc.

Al-Zaidy, T. A., & Motlak, J. B. (2019). Sustainable Spatial Development of Oil Investment Locations in Iraq) An Analytical Study of Environmental Impact (The site of the field Ahdab in Wasit province as a case study. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 518(2), 022067. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/518/2/022067

Austa, S. C. (2020). These are the 10 countries most at risk from the effects of climate change.

Bamber, D., Saleh, F., & Panditharathna, R. (2023). The Iraqi oil industry: history and overview. European Journal of Political Science Studies, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.46827/ejpss.v6i1.1424

Barret, C. (2020). Oil 2020 Analysis and forecast to 2025. Int Energy Agency, 1, 1–172.

Basra, D. (2018). Justice Solutions For Climate Resilience in Iraq. Public Aid Organization.

Bazza, M., Kay, M., Knutson, C. (2018). Drought characteristics and management in North Africa and the Near East. FAO Water Reports eng no 45.

Bekheet, H. N. (2022). The role of water situation in Iraq in exacerbating the problem of food security in Iraq. Akkad Journal Of Multidisciplinary Studies, 1(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.55202/ajms.v1i1.40

Benati, G., and Guerriero, C. (2021). Climate change and state evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(14). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020893118

Bozkurt, D., and Sen, O. L. (2013). Climate change impacts in the Euphrates–Tigris Basin based on different model and scenario simulations. Journal of Hydrology, 480, 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.12.021

Bridgewater, P., and Kim, R. E. (2021). The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands at 50. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 5(3), 268–270. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01392-5

Brouwer, F., Avgerinopoulos, G., Fazekas, D., et al. (2018). Energy modelling and the Nexus concept. Energy Strategy Reviews, 19, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2017.10.005

Brown, R. H. (2005). Reconstruction of Infrastructure in Iraq: end to a means or means to an end? Third World Quarterly, 26(4–5), 759–775. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590500128006

Busby, J. W., Busby, J. (2007). Climate change and national security: An agenda for action. Council on Foreign Relations Press.

Cabrera, D., Cabrera, L. (2015). Systems Thinking Made Simple. 2015, 224.

Cao, X., Dai, X., & Liu, J. (2016). Building energy-consumption status worldwide and the state-of-the-art technologies for zero-energy buildings during the past decade. Energy and Buildings, 128, 198–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.06.089

Carolin, S. A., Walker, R. T., Day, C. C., et al. (2018). Precise timing of abrupt increase in dust activity in the Middle East coincident with 4.2 ka social change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(1), 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808103115

Carroll, A. B., Brown, J. (2022). Business & society: Ethics, sustainability & stakeholder management. Cengage Learning.

Chaichan, M. T., Kazem, H. A., & Abed, T. A. (2016). Traffic and outdoor air pollution levels near highways in Baghdad, Iraq. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 20(2), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9900-x

Chatham House. (2020). Same Old Politics Will Not Solve Iraq Water Crisis. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/04/same-old-politics-will-not-solve-iraq-water-crisis (accessed on 23 April 2021)

Cilliers, P. (2002). Complexity and Postmodernism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203012253

Climate Diplomacy (2022). Berlin Climate Change and security conference. Available online: https://berlin-climate-security-conference.de/en (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Concern Worldwide (2022). 10 of the countries most affected by climate change.

Corrington, R. S. (2017). The Life of Reason: Reason in Religion (1905). American Journal of Theology & Philosophy, 38(1), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjtheophil.38.1.0099

Cosens, B., Ruhl, J. B., Soininen, N., et al. (2021). Governing complexity: Integrating science, governance, and law to manage accelerating change in the globalized commons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(36). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2102798118

Council U-SB (2021). Water In Saudi Arabia: Desalination, Wastewater And Privatization; United Nations World Water Assessment Program.

Curtin, F. (2005). Emerging trends in water resources conflict prevention: Public participation and the role of civil society. Water, Dev Coop Perspect Euphrates-Tigris South Africa. 33.

D., K., Regonda, S., et al. (2021). Water and Food Nexus: Role of Socio-Economic Status on Water–Food Nexus in an Urban Agglomeration Hyderabad, India Using Consumption Water Footprint. Water, 13(5), 637. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050637

Debrah, C., Chan, A. P. C., & Darko, A. (2022). Green finance gap in green buildings: A scoping review and future research needs. Building and Environment, 207, 108443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108443

Den Hartog, D. N., Boon, C., Verburg, R. M., et al. (2012). HRM, Communication, Satisfaction, and Perceived Performance. Journal of Management, 39(6), 1637–1665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206312440118

Dige, G., De Paoli, G., Strosser, P., et al. (2013). Assessment of cost recovery through water pricing. EEA Tech Rep.

Durschmied, E. (2001). The weather factor: how nature has changed history. Arcade Publishing.

El-Rawy, M., Batelaan, O., Al-Arifi, N., et al. (2023). Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: A Case Study in Saudi Arabia. Water, 15(3), 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030606

FAO. (2012). Iraq Agriculture sector note. Fao Invest Cent, 1–75.

FAO. (2021). Agricultural Value Chain Study in Iraq—Dates, Grapes, Tomatoes and Wheat. World Food Programme.

Fatli, T. (2018). Water scarcity and population displacement in southern Iraq: Perceptions and reality. Available online: https://fount.aucegypt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1495&context=etds (accessed on 12 January 2024).

Fleet, M. (2019). Decentralization and its Discontents in Iraq. Middle East Institute.

Ghadhban, L. H., & Jbara, G. (2019). Impact of product dumping on the agricultural sector in Iraq (2009–2017). Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 50(5). https://doi.org/10.36103/ijas.v50i5.788

Ghandi, A. and Lawell, C., (2019). On the Economic Efficiency of Oil Production Contracts: A Dynamic Model of the Rumaila Oil Field in Iraq. Working paper, Cornell University. Journal of Economic Literature (JEL).

GitHub (2022). World Data on CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Available online: https://github.com/owid/co2-data (accessed on 26 October 2023).

Gleick, P. H. (1993). Water and Conflict: Fresh Water Resources and International Security. International Security, 18(1), 79–112. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539033

Gomes, J., Cocke, D., Das, K., et al. (2009). Treatment of produced water by electrocoagulation. In: Proceedings of the TMS Annual Meeting and Exhibition. 459–466.

Haktanir, K., Karaca, A., Omar, S. M. (2004). The prospects of the impact of desertification on Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and Iraq. In: Environmental challenges in the Mediterranean 2000–2050. Springer. 139–154.

Hamdan, A. N. A., Al Saad, Z. A. A., & Abu-Alhail, S. (2021). Fuzzy system modelling to assess water quality for irrigation purposes. Journal of Water and Land Development, 98–107. https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2021.138165

Hamdoon, A. A. E. (2021). Economics of Water Security and Achievement of Sustainable Development in Iraq (Analysis and Evaluation). J Univ Babylon Pure Appl Sci, 29, 210–224.

Hameed M. Jawad Al Obaidy, A., & Al-Khateeb, M. (2013). The Challenges of Water Sustainability in Iraq. Engineering and Technology Journal, 31(5 A), 828–840. https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.31.5a3

Hamid, M. (2009). Climate change in the Arab world: Threats and responses. Troubl Waters Clim Chang Hydropolitics, Transbound Resour, 45–62.

Hermoso, V., Clavero, M., & Green, A. J. (2019). Don’t let damage to wetlands cancel out the benefits of hydropower. Nature, 568(7751), 171–171. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-01140-7

Hirokawa, K. H., Pohrib, A. (2013). The Role of Green Building in Climate Change Adaptation. Res Handb Clim Adapt LAW. 2012–2013.

Hu, T., Chen, K., Li, L., et al. (2021). Carbon nanotubes@silicone solar evaporators with controllable salt-tolerance for efficient water evaporation in a closed system. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 9(32), 17502–17511. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ta03920b

ILO (2009). Environmental, Climate and Sustainable Development Laws -Iraq. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=89060#:~:text=This Law aims to improve,and cooperating with other Ministries (accessed on 12 March 2021).

International Energy Agency. (2019). Iraq’s Energy Sector: A Roadmap to a Brighter Future. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/iraqs-energy-sector-a-roadmap-to-a-brighter-future (accessed on 7 November 2023).

International Organization for Migration (IOM), (2010), Iraq Displacement Reports Special Focus—Water Scarcity, https://reliefweb.int/report/iraq/iom-iraq-displacement-reports-special-focus-water-scarcity-september-2010 (accessed on 17 May 2022)

Iraq Supreme Judicial Council (2022). The new agricultural reform law - Iraq. Available online: https://www.sjc.iq/index-en.php. https://www.sjc.iq/view.69970/ (accessed on 7 November 2023).

Iraq UN (2013). Water in Iraq Factsheet. Iraq Jt Anal Policy Unit. https://reliefweb.int/report/iraq/water-iraq-factsheet-march-2013 (accessed on 13 Jan 2022)

Iraqi Embassy in US. (2020). Iraqi constitution. https://www.iraqiembassy.us/sites/default/files/documents/Constitution_of_Iraq_0.pdf (accessed on 20 Feburary 2021)

Ismael, N. B., Sorguli, S., Aziz, H. M., et al. (2021). The Impact of COVID-19 on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Iraq. Ann Rom Soc Cell Biol, 2496–2505.

Jabar, F. A. (2007). Iraq Four Years After the US-led Invasion: Assessing the crisis and searching for a way forward,Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://www.policyarchive.org/handle/10207/6536 (accessed on 24 July 2022)

Jaradat, A. A. (2003). Agriculture in Iraq: Resources, potentials, constraints, research needs and priorities.

Jones RN, Ricketts JH (2021). Climate as a complex, self-regulating system. Earth Syst Dyn Discuss, 1–47. https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-2021-62

Karasik, T., Spezia Depretto, J. (2019). Climate Change Is Exacerbating Iraq’s Complicated Water Politics. ECC Platf Libr 14.

Khudhair, R. and Jung, Y. (2022). Environmental and Economical Evaluation of Liquified Natural Gas Vehicles Promotion Program in The City of Baghdad. Kyushu University Institutional Repository. https://doi.org/10.5109/5909059; https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/5909059/2022_p031.pdf

King MD (2015). The weaponization of water in Syria and Iraq. Wash Q, 38, 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660x.2015.1125835

Knoema. (2019). Iraq—Agricultural methane emissions. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.METH.AG.ZS?locations=IQ (accessed on 7 November 2023).

Knowles, J. A. (2009). National solid waste management plan for Iraq. Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy, 27(4), 322–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242x09104129

Kool, D., Birkman, L., Torossian, B., et al. (2020). Interprovincial Water Challenges in Iraq. Available online: https://hcss.nl/wp-content/uploads/attachments/WPS-WorkingPaper-InterprovincialWaterChallenges.pdf (accessed on 7 November 2023).

Kozicka, M., Jones, S. K., Gotor, E., et al. (2021). Cross-scale trade-off analysis for sustainable development: linking future demand for animal source foods and ecosystem services provision to the SDGs. Sustainability Science, 17(1), 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-021-01082-y

Kuo, G. (2012). Will Natural Gas Replace Oil? World Futures Review, 4(1), 8–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/194675671200400103

Lange, M. A. (2018). The Impacts of Climate Change in the MENA Region and the Water-Energy Nexus. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints201810.0197.v1

Le Billon, P. (2005). Corruption, Reconstruction and Oil Governance in Iraq. Third World Quarterly, 26(4–5), 685–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590500127966

Lim, X. Y., Foo, D. C. Y., & Tan, R. R. (2018). Pinch analysis for the planning of power generation sector in the United Arab Emirates: A climate-energy-water nexus study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 180, 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.158

Lock, I. (2023). Conserving complexity: A complex systems paradigm and framework to study public relations’ contribution to grand challenges. Public Relations Review, 49(2), 102310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2023.102310

Lucani, P., Saade, M. (2012). Iraq: Agriculture sector note. Food Agric Organ United Nations World Bank. p. 75.

Maas, A., Fritzsche, K. (2012). Altering Security Dynamics? Climate Change Impacts on Iraq. In: Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability. Springer, pp. 409–422.

Mahdy, S. (2016). Understanding Corruption in Iraq.

Mahmood, S. A. (2020). Measuring the impact of some economic variables on unemployment rates in Iraq for the period (1990-2017). Int J Manag, 11.

Mahmud, S. F. (2021). Opportunities and Challenges of Sustainable Agricultural Development in Iraq. International Journal of Social Relevance & Concern, 9(1), 12-24.

Manabe, S. (2019). Role of greenhouse gas in climate change. Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography, 71(1), 1620078. https://doi.org/10.1080/16000870.2019.1620078

Marshall, M. (2022). Did a mega drought topple empires 4,200 years ago? Nature, 601(7894), 498–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00157-9

Masetti‐Rouault, M. G. (2012). Adad (Haddu). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah24002

Mateus, C., Valencia, M., DiFrancesco, K., et al. (2020). Governance Mechanisms and Barriers for Achieving Water Quality Improvements in Galapagos. Sustainability, 12(21), 8851. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12218851

Mbow, H.O.P., Reisinger, A., Canadell, J. and O’Brien, P. (2017). Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems (SR2). Ginevra, IPCC, 650. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/07/sr2_background_report_final.pdf (accessed on 27 May 2022)

Merkel, B., Al-Muqdadi, S., Pohl, T. (2021). Investigation of a karst sinkhole in a desert lake in southern Iraq. Fog-freib Online Geosci, 58.

Miller, J. H. (2016). A crude look at the whole: The science of complex systems in business, life, and society. Basic Books.

Ministry of Finance Iraq. (2021). Federal General Budget Law. Available online: http://www.mof.gov.iq/pages/ar/federalbudgetlaw.aspx (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Mock, P., Díaz, S. (2021). Pathways to decarbonization: the European passenger car market in the years 2021–2035. Communications, 49, 847129–848102.

Mohammed, A. J. (2019). Evaluation of The Validity of Agricultural Drainage Water for The Breeding of Common Carp Fish in Artificial ponds, Iraq. Plant Arch, 19, 403-406.

Mueller, A., Detges, A., Pohl, B., et al. (2021). Climate change, water and future cooperation and development in the Euphrates-Tigris basin. adelphi research gemeinnützige GmbH. https://doi.org/10.55317/casc017

Nabzar, L. (2011). Panorama 2011: Water in fuel production Oil production and refining. Institut Francais du Petrole (IFP).

Nanekely, M., Scholz, M., Aziz, S. Q. (2017). Towards sustainable management of groundwater: A case study of semi-arid area, Iraqi Kurdistan region. Eur Water, 57, 451–457.

NATO. (2022a). NATO releases its Climate Change and Security Impact Assessment. Available online: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_197241.htm (accessed on 21 October 2023).

NATO. (2022b). NATO holds roundtable on climate change and security, bringing together Allies and experts. Available online: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_210129.htm (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Nazarova, Z., Zabaikin, Y., & Kharlamov, M. (2022). Optimization of Technological Process Parameters to Create an Environmentally Friendly Waste Processing Technology. Ecological Engineering & Environmental Technology, 23(3), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.12912/27197050/147143

Noon, A. M., Ibrahim, H. G., & Sulaiman, S. O. (2022). Application of water evaluation and planning (WEAP) model for reuse of urban wastewater in Western Iraq. AIP Conference Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0067164

Nore, A. W. J., & Ghani, A. B. A. (2009). Insurgency, Political Stability and Economic Performance in Post-Saddam Iraq: An Evaluation. Journal of Politics and Law, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.5539/jpl.v2n4p103

OEC. (2017). What does Turkey export to Iraq? Available online: https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/tur/irq/show/2017/ (accessed on 21 October 2023).

FAO. (2020). The State of Food and Agriculture 2020.

Organization, F., A. (2021). The Impact of Disasters and Crises on Agriculture and Food Security.

Oshriyeh, O., Ghaffari, M., & Nematpour, M. (2022). Lines in the sand: the perceived risks of traveling to a destination and its influence on tourist information seeking behavior. International Journal of Tourism Cities, 8(4), 965–982. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijtc-07-2021-0138

Pickson, R. B., Gui, P., Chen, A., et al. (2023). Climate change and food security nexus in Asia: A regional comparison. Ecological Informatics, 76, 102038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2023.102038

Pilesjo, P. (2016). Modelling the Effects of Climate Change on Hydroelectric Power in Dokan, Iraq. International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering, 5(2), 7. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijepe.s.2016050201.12

Planetary Security Initiative. (2020). Drought ignites tribal conflicts in Southern Iraq. Available online: https://www.planetarysecurityinitiative.org/news/drought-ignites-tribal-conflicts-southern-iraq (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Planetary Security Intiative. (2021). Iraq’s Growing Desertification Problem. Planetary Security Intiative.

Plectica, L. L. C. (2020). Plectica Software. https://www.plectica.com (accessed on 26 October 2021)

Price, S. F. D., Pitts, T. R., Van Roekel, L. (2021). Climate Change and International Responses Increasing Challenges to US National Security Through 2040: LANL contributions to 2021 National Intelligence Estimate. Los Alamos National Lab. (LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States).

Pumphrey, C. (2008). Global climate change: National security implications. Army War Coll Strategic Studies Inst Carlisle Barracks Pa.

Rahi, M. N., Jaeel, A. J., & Abbas, A. J. (2021). Treatment of petroleum refinery effluents and wastewater in Iraq: A mini review. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1058(1), 012072. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1058/1/012072

Rasheed, S. A., Al-Adili, A. (2016). Sprinkler Irrigation Systems and Water Saving, A Case Study from South of Iraq. Engineering and Technology Journal, 34(4), 769–786. https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.34.4a.8

Rashidi, M., Rastegar, A., Mashhadi, A. (2021). The Source of the Obligation to Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment in Turkey Gap Project. Jurisprud Islam Law, 12, 117–144.

Ravago, M. L. V., Balisacan, A. M., & Chakravorty, U. (2015). The Principles and Practice of Sustainable Economic Development. Sustainable Economic Development, 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-800347-3.00001-7

Rawa Abdulla (2015). More than 90 percent of Kurdistan’s food is imported. RUDAW.

Razzak, W. (2019). Iraq: Private ownership of oil and the quest for democracy revisited [MRPA paper]. University Library of Munich, Germany.

Regonda, S. K., Dornadula, C. (2021). Water and food nexus: role of socio-economic status on water-food nexus in an urban agglomeration hyderabad, India using consumption water footprint. Water, 13, 637.

Rescue. (2023). 10 countries at risk of climate disaster. Available online: https://www.rescue.org/article/10-countries-risk-climate-disaster (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Rind, D. (1999). Complexity and Climate. Science, 284(5411), 105–107. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5411.105

Russo, A., & Perrini, F. (2009). Investigating Stakeholder Theory and Social Capital: CSR in Large Firms and SMEs. Journal of Business Ethics, 91(2), 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0079-z

S&P Global (2023). COP28: Iraq rejects fossil fuels phasedown, phaseout. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/121123-cop28-iraq-rejects-fossil-fuels-phasedown-phaseout (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Saab, N. W. (2018). More than infrastructures: water challenges in Iraq. Clingendael.

Saaf, E. J., Brouwer, J. H., Peters, B., Plataroti, L. (2018). Country profile Iraq. Wageningen Centre for Development Innovation.

Salman, N. A. (2022). Suggested methods for enhancement of aquaculture in the Southern Marshes of Iraq. Iraqi Journal of Aquaculture, 8(2), 157–177. https://doi.org/10.58629/ijaq.v8i2.236

Salman, S. A., Shahid, S., Ismail, T., et al. (2017). Long-term trends in daily temperature extremes in Iraq. Atmospheric Research, 198, 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.08.011

Salman, S. A., Shahid, S., Sharafati, A., et al. (2021). Projection of Agricultural Water Stress for Climate Change Scenarios: A Regional Case Study of Iraq. Agriculture, 11(12), 1288. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11121288

Samenow, J. (2016). Two Middle East locations hit 129 degrees, hottest ever in Eastern Hemisphere, maybe the world. Washington Post, 22.

Sanad Organization for Economic Development (2023). Climate Change and Security—Iraq. In: International conference of Climate Change and Security—Iraq. Baghdad.

Savage, J. D. (2013). Iraq’s Budget as a Source of Political Stability. United States Institute of Peace.

Schneider, S. H., & Dickinson, R. E. (1974). Climate modeling. Reviews of Geophysics, 12(3), 447–493. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1029/rg012i003p00447

Schnepf, R. D. (2004). Iraq agriculture and food supply: background and issues. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.

Seyuba, K., O’Driscoll, D., Tarif, K., et al. (2023). Climate, Peace and Security Fact Sheet: Iraq (Updated). Available online: https://www.sipri.org/publications/2023/partner-publications/climate-peace-and-security-fact-sheet-iraq-2023 (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Shakor R. (2020). Ethnicity-Based Political Instability in Iraq After 2003. Lectio Soc, 4, 113–124.

Shapland, G. (2023). Water security in Iraq. Available online: https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/119442/1/230501_WATER_SEC_IN_IRAQ_REPORT_non_sensitive_version.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Singh, A. K. (2011). National initiative on Climate resilient Agriculture. Available online: https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1743354 (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Soubrier, E. (2020). Redefining Gulf Security Begins by Including the Human Dimension. AGSIW Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington. 19 November 2020. AGSIW Issue Pap.

Sulaymon AH, Ibraheem JA, Graimed BH (2010). Household behavior on solid waste management a case of Al-kut city. Engineering and Technology Journal, 28(24), 7037–7046. https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.28.24.17

Tathagat D, Dod RD (2015). Role of green buildings in sustainable construction-need, challenges and scope in the Indian scenario. J Mech Civ Eng, 12, 1–9.

Tawfeeq, A. H., Hayder, A. M., & Ali, A. H. (2022). The essential factors to reduce energy consumption in Iraq. AIP Conference Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0066838

Thắng, V. T., Tran, T., Luong, D. (2020). Water governance for sustainable development: International practices and implications for the Mekong Delta region. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 24(04), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.24311/jabes/2017.24.4.6

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2021). Nationally Determined Contributions of Iraq (NDC).

The Global Economy. (2021). Iraq: GDP share of agriculture. Available online: https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Iraq/Share_of_agriculture/ (accessed on 21 October 2023).

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2017). GEO-6: Global Environment Outlook: Regional assessment for West Asia.

UAE Government. (2022). National Food Security Strategy 2051. Available online: https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/strategies-initiatives-and-awards/federal-governments-strategies-and-plans/national-food-security-strategy-2051 (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Umar UA, Khamidi MF. (2012). Determined the level of green building public awareness: application and strategies. In: International Conference on Civil, Offshore and Environmental Engineering. Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. pp. 1–6.

United Nations. (2023). Iraq Takes Center Stage and Makes its Mark at the UN Climate Change Conference.

United Nations Climate Change. (1997). What is the Kyoto Protocol? United Nations Climate Change.

United Nations department of economic and social affairs population dynamics. (2019). Total Population. Available online: https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Probabilistic/Population/ (accessed on 21 October 2023).

United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. (2022). Addressing the Impact of Climate Change on Peace and Security. https://dppa.un.org/en/addressing-impact-of-climate-change-peace-and-security#:~:text=DPPA%20is%20making%20targeted%20efforts,prevention%2C%20mediation%20and%20peacebuilding%20strategies (accessed on 27 December 2022)

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. (2022). Global Workshop on Water, Agriculture and Climate Change. Geneva Switzerland. https://unece.org/environmental-policy/events/global-workshop-water-agriculture-and-climate-change (accessed on 13 January 2023)

United Nations. (2023). Iraq Takes Center Stage and Makes its Mark at the UN Climate Change Conference. Available online: https://www.undp.org/iraq/press-releases/iraq-takes-center-stage-and-makes-its-mark-un-climate-change-conference (accessed on 21 October 2023).

United States Agency for International Development (USID). (2006). Strategy for Water and Land Resources of Iraq 2015–2035. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pdacj287.pdf (accessed on 7 June 2022)

Verisk Maplecroft. (2009). Climate Risk Dataset. Available online: https://www.maplecroft.com/global-risk-data/climate-risk-dataset/ (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Võ Tất, T., Thong, T., & Duy, L. (2017). Water governance for sustainable development: International practices and implications for the Mekong Delta region. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 24(04), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.24311/jabes/2017.24.4.6

Water Peace and Security. (2022). Water challenges and conflict dynamics in Southern Iraq an in-depth analysis of an under-researched crisis. Available online: https://waterpeacesecurity.org/files/208 (accessed on 21 October 2023).

Weiss, H., Courty, M. A., Wetterstrom, W., et al. (1993). The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization. Science, 261(5124), 995–1004. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.261.5124.995

WFP. (2018). National Strategic Review of Food Security and Nutrition in Iraq. Available online: https://reliefweb.int/report/iraq/national-strategic-review-food-security-and-nutrition-iraq?gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjw9vqyBhCKARIsAIIcLMG-0zP0Od-qmsdHVCRE_bX_-CKUkDtHJDMxJS2GzfVrB4I2s_zidEYaAlCiEALw_wcB (accessed on 21 October 2023).

WFP. (2020). Food Security in Iraq Impact of COVID-19. World Food Programme.

Wille, B. (2019). Basra is Thirsty: Iraq’s Failure to Manage the Water Crisis. Human Rights Watch.

Williams, P. (2009). Illicit markets, weak states and violence: Iraq and Mexico. Crime, Law and Social Change, 52(3), 323–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-009-9194-0

World Meteorological Organization. (2022). Associated Programme on Flood Management (APFM). In: Associated Programme on Flood Management (APFM). Geneva Switzerland.

Yadollahie, M. (2019). The Flood in Iran: A Consequence of the Global Warming? The International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 10(2), 54–56. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijoem.2019.1681

Yaseen, B. R., Al Asaady, K. A., Kazem, A. A., Chaichan, M. T. (2016). Environmental impacts of salt tide in Shatt al-Arab-Basra/Iraq. IOSR J Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol, 10, 35–43.

Yasir, R., Rahi, K., & Abudi, Z. (2018). Water budget for Abu Zirig marsh in southern Iraq. Journal of Engineering and Sustainable Development, 2018(01), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.31272/jeasd.2018.1.3

Yousif, B. (2006). Coalition economic policies in Iraq: motivations and outcomes. Third World Quarterly, 27(3), 491–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590600587770

Yousif, B. (2016). Iraq’s stunted growth: human and economic development in perspective. Contemporary Arab Affairs, 9(2), 212–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/17550912.2016.1150569

Zhongming, Z., Linong, L., Xiaona, Y., et al. (2020). Iraq launches National Adaptation Plan process for climate change resilience. UN Environment Programme.