Urban planning is critical to managing rapid urban growth, particularly in African regions experiencing high urbanization rates. This study focuses on Bol, Lake Chad Province, a city facing significant challenges due to inadequate planning frameworks compounded by recurrent humanitarian and climate crises. It fills an empirical gap by analyzing how local planning mechanisms respond to these socio-environmental complexities, with a focus on the interplay between institutional structures, legislative frameworks, and resource allocation. The study assesses urban planning practices in Bol to identify challenges and opportunities, with the aim of improving institutional effectiveness, aligning policies with realities, and integrating climate resilience strategies. Using a qualitative methodology, it combines field surveys, stakeholder interviews, and document analysis, using SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) and PESTEL (Political, Economic, Sociocultural, Technological, Environmental, Legal) frameworks for data analysis. The findings reveal that ineffective institutions, poor inter-sectoral coordination, outdated legislative frameworks and resource constraints hamper sustainable urban development in Bol. To address these issues, the study proposes to strengthen local institutional capacities, foster stakeholder collaboration, and modernize urban planning policies through participatory approaches. The study highlights the need to integrate resilience strategies into urban settings to mitigate climate change impacts and improve governance. These measures not only address immediate challenges, but also advance urban planning theory and provide a basis for future research on adaptation strategies in crisis-prone regions. This study offers practical insights for policy makers and contributes to developing more sustainable and resilient urban planning systems in similar contexts.

1. Abou Jaoude, G., Mumm, O., & Carlow, V. M. (2022). An Overview of Scenario Approaches: A Guide for Urban Design and Planning. Journal of Planning Literature, 37(3), 467–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/08854122221083546
2. Adekola, O., Krigsholm, P., & Riekkinen, K. (2021). Towards a holistic land law evaluation in sub-Saharan Africa: A novel framework with an application to Rwanda’s organic land law 2005. Land Use Policy, 103, 105291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105291
3. Agbola, B., & Falola, O. (2016). Planning Law Reforms in Africa: Case Studies From Uganda, South Africa and Nigeria. Springer Nature. pp. 125–147. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95109-3_5
4. Ahmad, N., & Anjum, G. A. (2012). Legal and institutional perplexities hampering the implementation of urban development plans in Pakistan. Cities, 29, 271–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CITIES.2011.07.006
5. Ajam, M. A. (2020). Call for Action. Leading Megaprojects, 353–359. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003029281-37
6. Andersen, J. E., Jenkins, P., & Nielsen, M. (2015). Who plans the African city? A case study of Maputo: part 1 – the structural context. International Development Planning Review, 37(3), 329–350. https://doi.org/10.3828/idpr.2015.20
7. Atkinson, C. L. (2024). Informal Settlements: A New Understanding for Governance and Vulnerability Study. Urban Science, 8(4), 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040158
8. Attia, S., Shabka, S., Shafik, Z., et al. (2016). Dynamics and Resilience of Informal Areas. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29948-8
9. Bacter, R. V., Gherdan, A. E. M., Dodu, M. A., et al. (2024). The Influence of Legislative and Economic Conditions on Romanian Agritourism: SWOT Study of Northwestern and Northeastern Regions and Sustainable Development Strategies. Sustainability, 16(17), 7382. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177382
10. Barbieri, R., Natale, F., Cattivelli, V., et al. (2024). Smart cities policies for urban development: Systematic insight into public value creation. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(15), 9572. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd9572
11. Bianchi, S., & Richiedei, A. (2023). Territorial Governance for Sustainable Development: A Multi-Level Governance Analysis in the Italian Context. Sustainability, 15(3), 2526. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032526
12. Bidandi, F., & Williams, J. J. (2017). The Challenges Facing Urbanisation Processes in Kampala. Urban Forum, 28(3), 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-017-9311-6
13. Boamah, E. F., & Amoako, C. (2020). Planning by (mis)rule of laws: The idiom and dilemma of planning within Ghana’s dual legal land systems. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 38(1), 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/2399654419855400
14. Bosch, M., Chenal, J., & Joost, S. (2019). Addressing Urban Sprawl from the Complexity Sciences. Urban Science, 3(2), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci3020060
15. Cantelmi, R., Di Gravio, G., & Patriarca, R. (2021). Reviewing qualitative research approaches in the context of critical infrastructure resilience. Environment Systems and Decisions, 41(3), 341–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-020-09795-8
16. Chelleri, L., Schuetze, T., & Salvati, L. (2015). Integrating resilience with urban sustainability in neglected neighborhoods: Challenges and opportunities of transitioning to decentralized water management in Mexico City. Habitat International, 48, 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.03.016
17. Chimhowu, A. (2019). The ‘new’ African customary land tenure. Characteristic, features and policy implications of a new paradigm. Land Use Policy, 81, 897–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.014
18. Cirolia, L. R., & Harber, J. (2021a). Urban statecraft: The governance of transport infrastructures in African cities. Urban Studies, 59(12), 2431–2450. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420980211028106
19. Cirolia, L. R., & Harber, J. (2021b). Urban statecraft: The governance of transport infrastructures in African cities. Urban Studies, 59(12), 2431–2450. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420980211028106
20. Cobbinah, P. B. (2023). City in Africa I: Urbanism and informality. Journal of Urban Affairs, 45(3), 297–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2023.2171616
21. Collins, A., & Mitchell, M. I. (2017). Revisiting the World Bank’s land law reform agenda in Africa: The promise and perils of customary practices. Journal of Agrarian Change, 18(1), 112–131. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12201
22. Daramola, O. (2019). Revisiting the Legal Framework of Urban Planning in the Global South. Smart Cities and Smart Spaces, 233–246. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7030-1.ch010
23. Dash, S. P., Adhesh, A., & Prabhu, S. G. (2024). Understanding the factors of accessibility to the neighborhood green spaces that contribute to social cohesion: A systematic literature review. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(8), 4383. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i8.4383
24. Desalegn, A., & Solomon, N. (2021). Effects of institutional capacity, infrastructure governance, and equity on state- and nation-building processes in Ethiopia. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v5i2.1301
25. Ehiane, S., & Moyo, P. (2021). Climate Change, Human Insecurity and Conflict Dynamics in the Lake Chad Region. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 57(8), 1677–1689. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096211063817
26. Güneralp, B., Lwasa, S., Masundire, H., et al. (2017). Urbanization in Africa: challenges and opportunities for conservation. Environmental Research Letters, 13(1), 015002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa94fe
27. Halepoto, I. A., Sahito, A. A., Uqaili, M. A., et al. (2015). Multi-criteria assessment of smart city transformation based on SWOT analysis. 2015 5th National Symposium on Information Technology: Towards New Smart World (NSITNSW), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/nsitnsw.2015.7176412
28. Harahap, M. A. K., Sugiarto, A., Harmain, U., et al. (2024). Exploring understudied areas of urban regional planning through bibliometric analysis. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(9), 6310. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i9.6310
29. Hassanein, A., Arifin, M., Houston, M., et al. (2015). The Lake Chad Basin: From the water crisis to geopolitic emergency. Source, 165–170. https://doi.org/10.15224/978-1-63248-081-1-125
30. Home, R. (2020). Land dispute resolution and the right to development in Africa. Journal for Juridical Science, 45(1). https://doi.org/10.18820/24150517/jjs45.i1.4
31. Jabareen, Y. (2013). Planning the resilient city: Concepts and strategies for coping with climate change and environmental risk. Cities, 31, 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2012.05.004
32. Jean-Pierre, K. (2019). Planification Urbaine Et Developpement Du Grand Abidjan: Cas Des Villes D’Anyama, De Bingerville Et De Grand-Bassam. Source.
33. Kalabamu, F. T. (2019). Land tenure reforms and persistence of land conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa—The case of Botswana. Land Use Policy, 81, 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.11.002
34. Keil, A. (2006). New urban governance processes on the level of neighbourhoods. European Planning Studies, 14(3), 335–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310500420826
35. Kurtz, K. D., Pearrow, M., Battal, J. S., et al. (2022). Adapting Social Emotional Learning Curricula for an Urban Context via Focus Groups: Process and Outcomes. School Psychology Review, 52(5), 548–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966x.2021.2021782
36. Leffers, D., & Wekerle, G. R. (2020). Land developers as institutional and postpolitical actors: Sites of power in land use policy and planning. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 52(2), 318–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518x19856628
37. Liu, S., Wang, J., Zeng, Y., & Lin, L. (2015). Existing Problems in Financial Support for New Urbanization and Recommendations. Asian Agricultural Research, 07, 1–3.
38. Lochmiller, C. (2021). Conducting Thematic Analysis with Qualitative Data. The Qualitative Report. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2021.5008
39. Lwasa, S. (2014). Managing African Urbanization in the Context of Environmental Change. INTER DISCIPLINA, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.22201/ceiich.24485705e.2014.2.46528
40. Lynch, K., Nel, E., & Binns, T. (2020). ‘Transforming Freetown’: Dilemmas of planning and development in a West African City. Cities, 101, 102694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102694
41. Madureira, T., Nunes, F., Mata, F., et al. (2024). A SWOT Analysis of Organizations in the Agri-Food Chain Sector from the Northern Region of Portugal Using the PESTEL and MEETHS Frameworks. Agriculture, 14(9), 1554. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091554
42. Manjengwa, J. (2016). Special issue: Towards resilient urban communities. Development Southern Africa, 33(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835x.2015.1117960
43. Meyer, N., & Auriacombe, C. (2019). Good Urban Governance and City Resilience: An Afrocentric Approach to Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 11(19), 5514. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195514
44. Michalina, D., Mederly, P., Diefenbacher, H., et al. (2021). Sustainable Urban Development: A Review of Urban Sustainability Indicator Frameworks. Sustainability, 13(16), 9348. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169348
45. Mitlin, D., Colenbrander, S., & Satterthwaite, D. (2018). Editorial: Finance for community-led local, city and national development. Environment and Urbanization, 30(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247818758251
46. Mohamed, N., & Vadeveloo, T. (2023). Diversifying Local Government Funding in Implementing Green Open Space for Green City Development: A Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarafms/v13-i2/18067
47. Morgan, E. (2012). The Sword in the Zone: Fantasies of Land-Use Planning Law. University of Toronto Law Journal, 62(2), 163–200. https://doi.org/10.3138/utlj.62.2.163
48. Mottelson, J. (2020). A New Hypothesis on Informal Land Supply, Livelihood, and Urban Form in Sub-Saharan African Cities. Land, 9(11), 435. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9110435
49. Mpandeli, S., Nhamo, L., Hlahla, S., et al. (2020). Migration under Climate Change in Southern Africa: A Nexus Planning Perspective. Sustainability, 12(11), 4722. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114722
50. Muchadenyika, D., & Waiswa, J. (2018). Policy, politics and leadership in slum upgrading: A comparative analysis of Harare and Kampala. Cities, 82, 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2018.05.005
51. Mulya, S. P., Panuju, D. R., Satria, A., et al. (2024). Revisiting the relationship between university towns and urbanization based on bibliometric analysis. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(15), 9280. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd9280
52. Naringué, F. T., Tob-Ro, N., Allarané, N., et al. (2024). Factors hindering the implementation of urban planning tools in Central Africa: Case study of reference urban plan for Sarh Town (Chad). Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(13), 8409. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd8409
53. Natow, R. S. (2020). The use of triangulation in qualitative studies employing elite interviews. Qualitative Research, 20(2), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794119830077
54. Newman, G., Lee, C., Jourdan, D., et al. (2021). Planning the Allocation and Reallocation of Urban Space. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 41(3), 258–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456x211022680
55. Niang, I., Namibia, O., Abdrabo, M., et al. (2014). Chapter 22 Africa. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Source. pp. 1199–1265.
56. Obeng‐Odoom, F. (2017). Urban Governance in Africa Today: Reframing, Experiences, and Lessons. Growth and Change, 48(1), 4–21. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12164
57. Ochunga, F. O., & Awiti, L. H. (2016). Influence of Stakeholder Participation on Sustainability of Community Development Projects Implemented by Plan International in Homa Bay Town Sub-County, Kenya. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(4). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v7-i4/2816
58. Olu-Owolabi, F. E., Oladoyin, A. M., Odukoya, O., et al. (2024). Harnessing traditional institutions for sustainable leadership and good governance in Nigeria. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(11), 6951. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i11.6951
59. Paszkowski, Z. W. (2018). New Look Over the Housing Architectural Planning in Sub-Saharan Africa. Space&FORM, 2018(34), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.21005/pif.2018.34.b-03
60. Pazouki, M., Jozi, S. A., & Ziari, Y. A. (2017). Strategic management in urban environment using SWOT and QSPM model. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.22034/gjesm.2017.03.02.009
61. Pieterse, E. (2019). Urban governance and spatial transformation ambitions in Johannesburg. Journal of Urban Affairs, 41(1), 20–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2017.1305807
62. Qi, L., Zhang, Y., Chen, Y., et al. (2024). The Spatial Pattern Evolution of Urban Innovation Actors and the Planning Response to Path Dependency: A Case Study of Guangzhou City, China. Urban Science, 8(3), 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8030111
63. Raynor, K. E., Doyon, A., & Beer, T. (2017). Collaborative planning, transitions management and design thinking: evaluating three participatory approaches to urban planning. Australian Planner, 54(4), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/07293682.2018.1477812
64. Razak, A. R., Baharuddin, T., & Rusliadi, R. (2024). Healthy city development: Indonesian government plans to build a new capital city. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(11), 6482. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i11.6482
65. Resnick, D. (2020). The politics of urban governance in sub-Saharan Africa. Regional & Federal Studies, 31(1), 139–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2020.1774371
66. Rezende, D. A. (2023). Strategic digital city: Concept, model, and research cases. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 7(2), 2177. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v7i2.2177
67. Ruhiiga, T. M. (2014). Urbanisation in South Africa: a critical review of policy, planning and practice. African Population Studies, 28(0), 610. https://doi.org/10.11564/28-0-519
68. Ruppel, O. C., & Funteh, M. B. (2019). Chapter 5: Climate change, human security and the humanitarian crisis in the Lake Chad Basin region: selected legal and developmental aspects with a special focus on water governance. Law | Environment | Africa, 105–136. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845294605-105
69. Schmidt, S., Li, W., Carruthers, J., et al. (2021). Planning Institutions and Urban Spatial Patterns: Evidence from a Cross-National Analysis. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 44(3), 1186–1197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456x211044203
70. Sergeevich, D. A., Konstantinovna, G. N., Artyom, K., & Kantemir, K. (2020). Use Of “Green” Technologies in Urban Planning and Architectural Solutions. Journal of Critical Reviews. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.06.01
71. Smit, W. (2018). Urban Governance in Africa: An Overview. Revue Internationale de Politique de Développement, 10, 55–77. https://doi.org/10.4000/poldev.2637
72. Sutherland, C., Sim, V., Buthelezi, S., et al. (2016). Social constructions of environmental services in a rapidly densifying peri-urban area under dual governance in Durban, South Africa. Bothalia, 46(2). https://doi.org/10.4102/abc.v46i2.2128
73. Toit, M. D., Cilliers, S., Dallimer, M., et al. (2018). Urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning, 180, 249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDURBPLAN.2018.06.001
74. Udessa, F., Adugna, D., & Workalemahu, L. (2023). Challenges to the Practice of Good Governance in Urban Land Use Planning: The Case of Two Selected Ethiopian Towns. Sustainability, 15(9), 7248. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097248
75. Vilar-Compte, M., Burrola-Méndez, S., Lozano-Marrufo, A., et al. (2021). Urban poverty and nutrition challenges associated with accessibility to a healthy diet: a global systematic literature review. International Journal for Equity in Health, 20(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-01330-0
76. Voukkali, I., & Zorpas, A. A. (2021). Evaluation of urban metabolism assessment methods through SWOT analysis and analytical hierocracy process. Science of The Total Environment, 807, 150700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150700
77. Watson, V. (2015). The allure of ‘smart city’ rhetoric. Dialogues in Human Geography, 5(1), 36–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043820614565868
78. Yatta, F. (2018). Urbanization in Africa: Trends, Regional Specificities, and Challenges. Source, 317‑339. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7799-9_14