In wealthy nations, biofuel usage has grown in importance as a means of addressing climate change concerns, ensuring energy security, and promoting agricultural development. Because they understand the potential advantages of biofuel for rural development and job creation, governments have created policies and legislation to encourage the production of biofuel. However, the province of Limpopo hasn’t fully taken advantage of the potential to use biofuel production as a vehicle for job development, despite a higher demand for the fuel. There is currently a lack of understanding of the role of biofuel in promoting local development in developing regions. For this reason, this study made use of semi-structured interviews to explore how biofuel production can be used as an instrument for Local Economic Development (LED) in the Limpopo province of South Africa. The research investigated the determinants of empowerment that could impact the commercial feasibility of biofuel production in the province. It also identified the need for human resource development to get workers ready for jobs in Limpopo’s biofuel sector. The results showed that, provided certain conditions were met, the production of biofuel in Limpopo may be a useful instrument for creating local jobs. By highlighting the potential for job creation and the importance of human resource development, this research aims to facilitate evidence-based decision-making that can harness biofuel production for sustainable rural development in the region. The value of this study lies in its contribution to the understanding of biofuel’s role in LED, offering actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in Limpopo. 

1. Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Sultana, S., et al. (2013). Policy Recommendation for Renewable Energy from Biofuels. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 8(1), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2011.569832
2. Antizar‐Ladislao, B., & Turrion‐Gomez, J. L. (2008). Second‐generation biofuels and local bioenergy systems. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 2(5), 455–469. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.97
3. Arndt, C., Msangi, S., & Thurlow, J. (2011). Are biofuels good for African development? An analytical framework with evidence from Mozambique and Tanzania. Biofuels, 2(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.4155/bfs.11.1
4. Awogbemi, O., Kallon, D. V. V., & Aigbodion, V. S. (2021). Trends in the development and utilization of agricultural wastes as heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. Journal of the Energy Institute, 98, 244–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2021.06.017
5. Balogun, O., Salami, T. (2016). Effects of biofuel production on selected local Communities in Nigeria. Journal of Petroleum Technology and Alternative Fuels, 7(3), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.5897/jptaf2015.0123
6. Ben-Iwo, J., Manovic, V., & Longhurst, P. (2016). Biomass resources and biofuels potential for the production of transportation fuels in Nigeria. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 63, 172–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.050
7. Brahma, S., Nath, B., Basumatary, B., et al. (2022). Biodiesel production from mixed oils: A sustainable approach towards industrial biofuel production. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances, 10, 100284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100284
8. Collotta, M., Champagne, P., Tomasoni, G., et al. (2019). Critical indicators of sustainability for biofuels: An analysis through a life cycle sustainabilty assessment perspective. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 115, 109358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109358
9. Correa, D. F., Beyer, H. L., Fargione, J. E., et al. (2019). Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 107, 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.005
10. de Castro Assumpção, D., Hamaguchi, M., Rocha, J. D., et al. (2020). Green Energy in Africa, Asia, and South America. Green Energy to Sustainability, 57–75. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119152057.ch3
11. Denizel, M., Suzuki, Y., & Anderson, C. (2020). Increasing Biofuel Proliferation via the Optimal Use of Government Incentives. Transportation Journal, 59(4), 399–419. Portico. https://doi.org/10.5325/transportationj.59.4.0399
12. Department of Transport [DoT]. (2018). South Africa’s Green Transport Strategy. Pretoria: Government Printer.
13. Department of Minerals and Energy [DMRE]. (2007). Biofuels Industrial Strategy of the Republic of South Africa. Department of Minerals and Energy. Available online: http://www.energy.gov.za/files/esources/renewables /biofuels_indus_strat (accessed on 10 October 2025).
14. Edeseyi, M. E., Kaita, A. Y., Harun, R., et al. (2015). Rethinking sustainable biofuel marketing to titivate commercial interests. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52, 781–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.117
15. Funke, T., Strauss, P. G., & Meyer, F. (2009). Modelling the impacts of the industrial biofuels strategy on the South African agricultural and biofuel subsectors. Agrekon, 48(3), 223–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2009.9523825
16. Gan, J., Stupak, I., & Smith, C. T. (2019). Integrating policy, market, and technology for sustainability governance of agriculture-based biofuel and bioeconomic development in the US. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-019-0223-2
17. Gasparatos, A. (2012). Biofuels at the confluence of energy security, rural development, and food security: a developing country perspective. Socioeconomic and environmental impacts of biofuels: evidence from developing nations.
18. Grieco, W. J., Javan, A. (2010). Making smarter clean-tech investments. Chemical engineering progress.
19. Hartley, F., van Seventer, D., Tostão, E., et al. (2016). Economic impacts of developing a biofuel industry in Mozambique. WIDER Working Paper. https://doi.org/10.35188/unu-wider/2016/221-2
20. Heijman, W., Szabó, Z., & Veldhuizen, E. (2019). The Contribution of Biorefineries to Rural Development: The Case of Employment in Hungary. Studies in Agricultural Economics, 121(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.7896/j.1820
21. Hidayatno, A., Hasibuan, R. G., Nimpuno, G. C. W., et al. (2019). Designing a Serious Simulation Game as a Learning Media of Sustainable Supply Chain Management for Biofuel Production. Energy Procedia, 156, 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.083
22. Hoffmann, H., Uckert, G., Reif, C., et al. (2014). Local biofuel production for rural electrification potentially promotes development but threatens food security in Laela, Western Tanzania. Regional Environmental Change, 15(7), 1181–1190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-014-0596-x
23. Ingle, A. P., Philippini, R., Martiniano, S. E., et al. (2020). Application of Metal Oxide Nanostructures as Heterogeneous Catalysts for Biodiesel Production. Advanced Heterogeneous Catalysts Volume 1: Applications at the Nano-Scale, 261–289. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2020-1359.ch009
24. International Energy Agency [IEA] Bioenergy. (2018). Bioenergy policies and status of implementation. United States: IEA. pp.1-2.
25. Jagadale, M., Beula Isabel, J., Jadhav, M., et al. (2024). Biofuel Production. Solid‐Gaseous Biofuels Production, 1–30. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394204816.ch1
26. Jeswani, H. K., Chilvers, A., & Azapagic, A. (2020). Environmental sustainability of biofuels: a review. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences; 2020.
27. Kedron, P., & Bagchi-Sen, S. (2018). Explanations of firm survival in renewable energy in the United States: a study of ethanol refineries. European Planning Studies, 26(11), 2237–2255. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2018.1530150
28. Kumar, S. J., Gujjala, L. K. S., Dash, A., et al. (2017). Biodiesel Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Oleaginous Microbes. Lignocellulosic Biomass Production and Industrial Applications, 65–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119323686.ch4
29. Lynd, L. R., Sow, M., Chimphango, A. F., et al. (2015). Bioenergy and African transformation. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-014-0188-5
30. Macrotrends. (2024). South Africa Rural Population. Available online: https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/ZAF/south-africa/rural-population (accessed on 18 November 2024).
31. Malobane, M. E., Nciizah, A. D., Wakindiki, I. C., et al. (2018). Sustainable production of sweet sorghum for biofuel production through conservation agriculture in South Africa. Food and Energy Security, 7(3). Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.129
32. Mat Aron, N. S., Khoo, K. S., Wayne, K. W., et al. (2020). Sustainability of the four generations of biofuels—A review. International Journal of Energy Research, 44(12), 9266–9282. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5557
33. Mengistu, M., Steyn, J., Kunz, R., et al. (2016). A preliminary investigation of the water use efficiency of sweet sorghum for biofuel in South Africa. Water SA, 42(1), 152. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v42i1.15
34. Mizik, T., & Gyarmati, G. (2021). Economic and Sustainability of Biodiesel Production—A Systematic Literature Review. Clean Technologies, 3(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol3010002
35. Mvelase, L. M., Ferrer, S. R. D., Mustapha, N. (2023). The socio-economic impact assessment of biofuels production in South Africa: A rapid structured review of literature. Cogent Engineering, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2023.2192328
36. Naeem Nawaz, S. M., & Alvi, S. (2018). Energy security for socio-economic and environmental sustainability in Pakistan. Heliyon, 4(10), e00854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00854
37. Ndokwana, A., & Fore, S. (2018). Economic assessment of bioethanol production from maize in South Africa. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 16(6), 973–994. https://doi.org/10.1108/jedt-05-2017-0052
38. Narwane, V. S., Yadav, V. D., Raut, R. D., et al. (2021). Sustainable development challenges of the biofuel industry in India based on integrated MCDM approach. Renewable Energy, 164, 298–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.077
39. Neuwahl, F., Löschel, A., Mongelli, I., et al. (2008). Employment impacts of EU biofuels policy: Combining bottom-up technology information and sectoral market simulations in an input-output framework. Ecological Economics, 68(1–2), 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.04.018
40. Nkolo, J. C., Motel, P. C., & Djimeli, C. G. (2018). Income-generating Effects of Biofuel Policies: A Meta-analysis of the CGE Literature. Ecological Economics, 147, 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.01.025
41. Ogaboh, A. M. (2010). Developing the Biofuel Industry for Effective Rural Transformation in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research.
42. Oluwatayo, I. B., & Ojo, A. O. (2016). Is Africa’s dependence on agriculture the cause of poverty in the continent?: An empirical review. The Journal of Developing Areas, 50(1), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2016.0016
43. Paschalidou, A., Tsatiris, M., Kitikidou, K., et al. (2018). Using Energy Crops for Biofuels or Food: The Choice. In Green Energy and Technology. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63943-7
44. Pradhan, A., & Mbohwa, C. (2014). Development of biofuels in South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 39, 1089–1100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.131
45. Richards, E. (2013). Careers in Biofuels. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Available online: https://www.bls.gov/green/biofuels/biofuels.pdf (accessed on 8 October 2024).
46. Saleem, M. (2022). Possibility of utilizing agriculture biomass as a renewable and sustainable future energy source. Heliyon, 8(2), e08905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08905
47. Schhnemann, F., Thurlow, J., & Zeller, M. (2016). Leveling the Field for Biofuels: Comparing the Economic and Environmental Impacts of Biofuel and Other Export Crops in Malawi. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2740490
48. Sekoai, P., & Yoro, K. (2016). Biofuel Development Initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Climate, 4(2), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli4020033
49. Sivarathnakumar, S., Adhitiyan, T., Gubendhiran, S., Praveenkumar, R. (2021). Ecological and economic impacts on biofuel production. In: International Conference on Advances and Innovations in Recycling Engineering. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
50. Suzihaque, M. U. H., Alwi, H., Ibrahim, U. K., et al. (2022). Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil: A brief review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 63, S490–S495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.527
51. To, H., Sen, S., Charles, M. B. (2014). Economic issues in the liquid biofuels industry. Liquid biofuels: emergence, development and prospects. Lecture Notes in Energy.
52. Topi, D. (2020). Transforming waste vegetable oils to biodiesel, establishing of a waste oil management system in Albania. SN Applied Sciences, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2268-4
53. Van der Waldt, G., & Fourie, D. (2022). Ease of Doing Business in Local Government: Push and Pull Factors for Business Investment in Selected South African Municipalities. World, 3(3), 470–486. https://doi.org/10.3390/world3030025
54. Vega, L. P., Bautista, K. T., Campos, H., et al. (2024). Biofuel production in Latin America: A review for Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica and Colombia. Energy Reports, 11, 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.10.060
55. Wang, C., Malik, A., Wang, Y., et al. (2020). The social, economic, and environmental implications of biomass ethanol production in China: A multi-regional input-output-based hybrid LCA model. Journal of Cleaner Production, 249, 119326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119326
56. Widengård, M. (2011). Biofuel governance: a matter of discursive and actor intermesh. Biofuels, Land Grabbing and Food Security in Africa. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350218673.ch-002
57. World Bank. (2020). Rural population (% of total population). Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ (accessed on 8 October 2024).
58. Zaman, K., Awan, U., Islam, T., et al. (2016). Econometric applications for measuring the environmental impacts of biofuel production in the panel of worlds’ largest region. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 41(7), 4305–4325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.01.053
59. Zetterholm, J., Bryngemark, E., Ahlström, J., et al. (2020). Economic Evaluation of Large-Scale Biorefinery Deployment: A Framework Integrating Dynamic Biomass Market and Techno-Economic Models. Sustainability, 12(17), 7126. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12177126
60. Zilouchian, A., & Abtahi, A. (2012). A New Certificate Program in Renewable Energy. In: Proceedings of the 2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition Proceedings; 2012.