This research analyses the effects of openness, telecommunications, and institutional nexus on economic growth in African countries using a panel model with data from 16 landlocked countries from 1996 to 2021 and employing the pooled mean group estimation technique that mitigates bias from country heterogeneity and discerning short-term and long-term equilibrium dynamics and two-step system-generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation for robustness check. The empirical findings indicate that openness exerts a significantly positive effect on economic growth in the models. This supports the neoclassical model, suggesting that being landlocked should not impede economic growth, but rather, growth should depend on opportunities available to each country. However, institutions and telecommunications show a mixed correlation with economic growth. These findings can guide landlocked developing countries in enhancing their exports and fostering skill acquisition to attract advanced technology. In conclusion, policymakers should improve macroeconomic policies, telecommunications infrastructure, and institutional structure to strengthen the sustainability of economic growth in African landlocked countries.

Abdulqadir, I. A., & Asongu, S. A. (2022). The asymmetric effect of internet access on economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa. Economic analysis and policy, 73, 44-61.

Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2008). Persistence of power, elites, and institutions. American Economic Review, 98(1), 267-293.

Almeida, F. (2018). Revisiting “Institutions”: A Study of the Evolution of Institutional Analysis. Journal of economic issues, 52(2), 323-335.

Almeida, R., & Fernandes, A. M. (2008). Openness and technological innovations in developing countries: evidence from firm-level surveys. The Journal of Development Studies, 44(5), 701-727.

Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277-297.

Bahrini, R., & Qaffas, A. A. (2019). Impact of Information and Communication Technology on Economic Growth: Evidence from Developing Countries. Economies, 7(1), 21. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/7/1/21

Bakare, A. S., & Gold, K. L. (2011). Estimating the impacts of global system for mobile telecommunication (gsm) on income, employment and transaction cost in Nigeria. Journal of economics and international finance, 3(1), 37-45.

Banegas Rivero, R. A., Nuñez Ramirez, M. A., Salas Vargas, J., Escobar Caba, L. F., & Valdez del Río, S. (2019). Landlocked countries, natural resources and growth: the double economic curse hypothesis. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(5), 113-124.

Basnet, S. (2017). Institutions and Economic Growth of Landlocked Nations–part of dissertation.

Basnet, S. (2021). Institutions, Geography and Economic Prosperity: The Case of Landlocked Countries Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal)]. https://www.repository.utl.pt/bitstream/10400.5/23973/1/TD-SB-2021.pdf

Bertschek, I., Briglauer, W., Hüschelrath, K., Kauf, B., & Niebel, T. (2015). The economic impacts of broadband internet: A survey. Review of Network Economics, 14(4), 201-227.

Bertschek, I., Briglauer, W., Hüschelrath, K., Kauf, B., & Niebel, T. (2016). The Economic Impacts of Telecommunications Networks and Broadband Internet: A Survey (No. 16–056). In.

Bhagwati, J. N., & Srinivasan, T. N. (1978). Trade policy and development (Vol. 90). World Bank Washington, DC.

Bhattarai, K. (2019). Export Performance of Landlocked Countries: with Special Reference to Developing Economies https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/4572

Blanchard, O. J., & Leigh, D. (2013). Growth forecast errors and fiscal multipliers. American Economic Review, 103(3), 117-120.

Borchert, I., Gootiiz, B., Grover, A., & Mattoo, A. (2012). Landlocked or policy locked? How services trade protection deepens economic isolation. How Services Trade Protection Deepens Economic Isolation (January 1, 2012). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper (5942).

Carlsson, R., Otto, A., & Hall, J. W. (2013). The role of infrastructure in macroeconomic growth theories [Article]. Civil Engineering & Environmental Systems, 30(3/4), 263-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286608.2013.866107

Chomen, M. T. (2022). Institutions–Economic Growth Nexus in Sub-Saharan Africa. Heliyon, 8(12).

Collier, P., & O’Connell, S. (1960). Opportunities and choices. The political economy of economic growth in Africa, 2000(1), 76-136.

Fagerberg, J. (1988). Why growth rates differ. Technical change and economic theory, 432-457.

Frankel, J. A., & Romer, D. H. (1999). Does Trade Cause Growth? American Economic Review, 89(3), 379-399. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.89.3.379

Gallup, J. L., Sachs, J. D., & Mellinger, A. D. (1999). Geography and economic development. International regional science review, 22(2), 179-232.

Ghosh, S. (2017). Broadband penetration and economic growth: Do policies matter? Telematics and informatics, 34(5), 676-693.

Gold, K. L. (2011). Aggregate Analysis of the Impacts of Telecommunication Infrastructural Development on Nigerian Economy. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 1, 4. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=9a14f8b10118bdfc546899aa83f6beb3a2544453

Gold, K. L. (2019). Determinants of China’s Economic Engagement with Oil and Minerals Exporting African Countries/Gold Kafilah Lola (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia).

Gold, K. L. (2022). The determinant of Chinese foreign direct investments in oil exporting African countries. Contemporary Economic Policy, 40(3), 476-490. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/coep.12568

Gold, K., & Rasiah, R. (2022). China’s bilateral trade in Africa: is institutional structure a determinant? Chinese Management Studies, 16(3), 673-687.

Haftu, G. G. (2019). Information communications technology and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: A panel data approach. Telecommunications Policy, 43(1), 88-99.

Harb, G. (2017). The economic impact of the Internet penetration rate and telecom investments in Arab and Middle Eastern countries. Economic analysis and policy, 56, 148-162.

Hodgson, G. M. (2006). What are institutions? Journal of economic issues, 40(1), 1-25.

International Telecommunication Union. (2019). Economic impact of broadband in LDCs, LLDCs and SIDS - An empirical study (ITU, Ed.). Telecommunication Development Bureau Place des Nations CH-1211 Geneva 20 Switzerland. https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-d/opb/ldc/D-LDC-BROAD_IMP.01-2019-PDF-E.pdf

Kashiha, M., Thill, J.-C., & Depken, C. A. (2016). Shipping route choice across geographies: Coastal vs. landlocked countries. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 91, 1-14. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tre.2016.03.012

Keho, Y. (2017). The impact of trade openness on economic growth: The case of Cote d’Ivoire. Cogent economics & finance, 5(1), 1332820. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2017.1332820

Krueger, A. O. (1978). Foreign trade regimes and economic development: Liberalization attempts and consequences. NBER Books.

Lee, S. H., Levendis, J., & Gutierrez, L. (2012). Telecommunications and economic growth: An empirical analysis of sub-Saharan Africa. Applied Economics, 44(4), 461-469.

Limao, N., & Venables, A. J. (2001). Infrastructure, geographical disadvantage, transport costs, and trade. The World Bank Economic Review, 15(3), 451-479.

MacKellar, L., Wörgötter, A., & Wörz, J. (2000). Economic development problems of landlocked countries.

Musibau, H. O., Shittu, W. O., & Ogunlana, F. O. (2021). The relationship between environmental degradation, energy use and economic growth in Nigeria: new evidence from non-linear ARDL. International Journal of Energy Sector Management, 15(1), 81-100.

Normizan, B., & Yasunori, I. (2014). Export competition between landlocked and coastal countries: An analysis of strategic export policies. Review of Development Economics, 18(4), 804-812.

North, D. C. (1991). Institutions. Journal of Economic perspectives, 5(1), 97-112.

Osei, D. B., Sare, Y. A., & Ibrahim, M. (2019). On the determinants of trade openness in low-and lower–middle-income countries in Africa: how important is economic growth? Future Business Journal, 5(1), 1-10.

Pagiatakis, G. K. (2005). Teaching telecommunications to electronics technical engineers: An integral course on Telecommunication Systems. Ieee Transactions on Education, 48(2), 223-229. https://doi.org/10.1109/te.2004.837037

Paudel, R. C. (2014). Economic growth in developing countries: Is landlockedness destiny? Economic Papers: A journal of applied economics and policy, 33(4), 339-361.

Paudel, R. C. (2019). Trade-Growth Nexus in Landlocked Developing Countries: A Quantile Regression Framework. Economic Journal of Nepal, 42(1-2), 1-16.

Paudel, R. C., & Cooray, A. (2018). Export performance of developing countries: Does landlockedness matter? Review of Development Economics, 22(3), e36-e62.

Prebisch, R. (1962). The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems. Economic Bulletin for Latin America, 7(1), 1-22.

Raballand, G. (2003). Determinants of the negative impact of being landlocked on trade: an empirical investigation through the Central Asian case. Comparative economic studies, 45, 520-536.

Radelet, S., & Sachs, J. D. (1998). Shipping costs, manufactured exports, and economic growth.

Ricardo, D. (1891). Principles of political economy and taxation. G. Bell.

Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5, Part 2), S71-S102.

Romer, P. M. (1994). The origins of endogenous growth. Journal of Economic perspectives, 8(1), 3-22.

Shepherd, B., & Wilson, J. S. (2007). Trade, infrastructure, and roadways in Europe and Central Asia: New empirical evidence. Journal of Economic Integration, 723-747.

Shittu, W. O., Musibau, H. O., & Jimoh, S. O. (2022). The complementary roles of human capital and institutional quality on natural resource-FDI—economic growth Nexus in the MENA region. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 24(6), 7936-7957.

Stone, J. I. (2001). Infrastructure Development in Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries: Foreign Aid, Private Investment and the Transport Cost Burden of Landlocked Developing Countries.

Tripathi, J. S. (2023). Trade-growth nexus: A study of G20 countries using simultaneous equations model with dynamic policy simulations. Journal of Policy Modeling, 45(4), 806-816.

UNCTAD. (2024). Merchandise: Total trade and share, annual https://unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.TradeMerchTotal

UN-OHRLLS. (2013). The Development Economics of Landlockedness: Understanding the Development Costs of Being Landlocked. https://www.un.org/ohrlls/sites/www.un.org.ohrlls/files/lldcs_publications/dev-costs-of-landlockedness.pdf

Ward, M. R., & Zheng, S. (2016). Mobile telecommunications service and economic growth: Evidence from China. Telecommunications Policy, 40(2-3), 89-101.

World Bank. (2024). GDP (current US$) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2022&name_desc=false&start=1985

WorldBank-UN. (2014). Improving Trade and Transport for Landlocked Developing Countries (World Bank-United Nations report in preparation for the 2nd United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs), Issue. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/988231468126267145/pdf/95447-REPLACEMENT-Improving-Trade-and-Transport-for-Landlocked-Developing-Countries.pdf

Zahonogo, P. (2016). Trade and economic growth in developing countries: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Trade, 3(1-2), 41-56.