Over the past 50 years, urban planning documents have been drawn up in sub-Saharan African cities without any convincing results. The study of secondary towns in Chad shows that these planning documents have been hampered by natural and man-made factors. The aim of this study is to determine the factors hindering the implementation of planning documents in the town of Pala in Chad. To carry out the study, a methodological approach (using quantitative and qualitative data) based on a questionnaire and interview survey was deployed for data collection. With a sample of 300 households surveyed, the main conclusions of the study show that all the factors identified, such as water erosion with a rate of 17.7 T/Ha/year, expose the town to various risks. Demographics, on the other hand, represent a lesser and therefore acceptable challenge. As far as exogenous factors are concerned, the level of education of the head of household is a determining factor in the implementation and acceptance of urban planning documents in Pala. Confirmatory factor analysis and the Chi² test revealed that consideration of stakeholders’ needs and their inclusion in the process of drawing up these documents are factors that significantly influence their implementation. In contrast, age, gender and other variables did not reveal any significant anomalies in our analyses. Consequently, future efforts to implement Pala’s planning documents must be based on community participation and awareness of the acceptance of these documents, which are necessary in a process of decentralization and urban planning.

Abdoulaye, M. (2016). Investment in Africa: Some positive effects on growth and obstacles facing investment. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research.

Actors, N. P. D. (2022). Benin/Communal Development Plan 4th generation: Winning the battle of local planning by aiming far. Availbale online: https://jumelages-partenariats.com/en/actualites.php?n=17523 (accessed on 11 November 2024).

Allarané, N., & Mahamat, H. H. (2024). Outils d’urbanisme comme instruments de fabrication de la ville de N’Djaména (1990 à 2023). Available online: https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/AMJAU/article/download/48673/26222/140033 (accessed on 11 November 2024).

Allarané, N., Atchadé, A. J., Azagoun, V. V. A., et al. (2023). Assessment of Climate Risks, Vulnerability of Urban Health Systems, and Individual Adaptation Strategies in the City of N’Djaména (Chad). Climate, 12(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12010005

Allarané, N., Vidjinnagni Vinasse, A. A., Assouhan, J. A., et al. (2023). Urban vulnerability and adaptation strategies to recurrent climate risks in Central Africa: evidence from the city of N’Djaména (Chad). Urban sciences.

Arnstein, S. R. (1969). A Ladder Of Citizen Participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35(4), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944366908977225

Baker, J. (2018). Introduction to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Pressbooks.

C, A., J, M., & E, C. (2007). Evaluation de l’impact du programme de rénovation urbaine: étude de la région métropolitaine de santiago 1991-2006. Ministère du Logement et de l’urbanismede santiago. Santiago.

Chénal, J. (2014). The West African city: urban space and urban planning models (French). EPFL presse.

Christophe, B. D., Femke, R., Giovanni, B., et al. (2017). Expansion future des terres urbaines et implications pour les terres cultivées mondiales. National Library of medicine.

Cirolia, L. R., & Berrisford, S. (2017). ‘Negotiated planning’: Diverse trajectories of implementation in Nairobi, Addis Ababa, and Harare. Habitat International, 59, 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.11.005

Climatize. (2022). Development of Smart Cities—A Sustainability Objective. Available online: https://www.climatize.ae/development-of-smart-cities-a-sustainability-objective/ (accessed on 11 November 2024).

Cohen, B. (2005). Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future projections, and key challenges for sustainability. Technology in Society.

Duranton, G. (2015). Growing through Cities in Developing Countries. The World Bank Research Observer, 30(1), 39–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lku006

Evans, B., Elisei, P., Rosenfeld, O., et al. (2016). HABITAT III—Toward a New Urban Agenda. DisP—The Planning Review, 52(1), 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/02513625.2016.1171053

Faludi, A. (2004). The Impact of a Planning Philosophy. Sage Journals.

Frank, F. (2000). Citizens, Experts, and the Environment: The Politics of Local Knowledge. Duke University Press.

Frederick, C. C. (2013). The keep, the institutional repository of Eastern Illinois University. Available online: https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/1174/ (accessed on 11 November 2024).

Frick, S. A., & Rodríguez-Pose, A. (2018). Change in urban concentration and economic growth. World Development, 105, 156–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.034

Hameed R., Nadeem O. (2008). Challenges of Implementing Urban Master Plans: The Lahore Experience. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.

Humain-Lamoure, A. L., & Laporte, A. (2017). Chapter 1. The city: a complex object to understand (French). Dans Introduction à la géographie urbaine.

Ibrahim, A. N., & Elhadi, A. (2024). Urbanisation in Sub-Saharan Cities and the Implications for Urban Agriculture: Evidence-Based Remote Sensing from Niamey, Niger. Urban Science, 8(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8010005

Iléri, D., & Follygan, H. (2016). Problèmes de sous-équipement et stratégies d’assainissement à Notsé (Togo): Acteurs et enjeux de la gestion des services urbains. Cahiers du Centre Béninois de la recherche scientifique et Technique (CBRST).

Jean Claude, B., & Abigael, K. (2011). Technologie et villes: Quel type de développement pour les villes du Sud?. Journal de technologie urbaine.

Jiho, J., & Seungkwon, Y. (2004). Does Political Instability Matter? U.S. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Policy and Political Instability in Korea. Korean Social Science Journal.

Karen, C., Burak, G., & Lucy, R. (2012). Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon reservoirs. NEXUS PNAS.

Karen, C., Roberto, S. R., & Michail, F. (2010). The New Geography of Contemporary Urbanization and the Environment. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 35(1), 167–194. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-100809-125336

Kathryn, M., & Amy, E. (2007). Effects of Social Desirability on Students’ Self-Reporting of Partner Abuse Perpetration and Victimization. Violence and Victims, 22(2), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1891/088667007780477348

Kuddus, M. A., Tynan, E., & McBryde, E. (2020). Urbanization: a problem for the rich and the poor?. Public Health Reviews, 41(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-019-0116-0

Lal, R. (2001). Soil degradation by erosion. Land Degradation & Development, 12(6), 519–539. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.472

Leonardo, J. R., & Angéla, I. G. (2020). Sustainability and Resilience in Smart City Planning: A Review. Sustainability.

Manizhe, J., Fatemeh, V., Hamidreza, A., & Noshin, J. (2024). The level of awareness and attitude of residents over 18 years of age in the villages covered by the health and treatment center in two rural areas in Zanjan province regarding the ways of brucellosis transmission. Oncologie et radiothérapie.

Mansuri, G., & Rao, V. (2013). Localizing Development. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8256-1

Maulat, J. (2020). Urbanisme et aménagement. Armand colin, 213–232. https://doi.org/10.3917/arco.bogno.2020.01.0213

Mejia, R., & Camacho, C. L. (2020). Lineamientos para la inserción de restricciones ambientales en el ordenamiento territorial de la periferia de Maracaibo. Available online: https://www.academia.edu/12678148/Lineamientos_para_la_inserci%C3%B3n_de_restricciones_ambientales_en_el_ordenamiento_territorial_de_la_periferia_de_Maracaibo (accessed on 10 November 2024).

Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire, D. D. (2011). Rapport définitif des Plans urbains de référence des villes du Tchad. N’Djaména: STUDI International.

Nallathiga, R. (2015). Assessing the Role of Master Plans in City Development: Reform Measures and Approaches. Political Science.

Ndouba, M. H. (2023). Urbanisation au Tchad: une croissance anarchique malgré des ressources pétrolières. Available online: https://www.alwihdainfo.com/Urbanisation-au-Tchad-une-croissance-anarchique-malgre-des-ressources-petrolieres_a120726.html (accessed on 10 November 2024).

Negeri, M. D., Guta, M. S., & Erena, S. H. (2023). Determinant factors hinder urban structure plan implementation: The case of Nekemte Town, Ethiopia. Heliyon, 9(3), e13448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13448

Nguémadjita, R. (2024). Occupation Des Espaces Non Planifiés Et Mutations Territoriales Dans La Ville De Pala. Dans Thèse de doctorat en géographie. Cameroun: Université de Maroua.

Okeked, C. (2015). African Approaches to Spatial and Green Planning. Environmental Science, Geography, Sociology.

Pickcance, C. (1982). Physical Planning and Market Forces in Urban Development. Geography, Economics, Sociology.

Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., et al. (1995). Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits. Science, 267(5201), 1117–1123. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.267.5201.1117

Pribadi, D. O., & Pauleit, S. (2015). The dynamics of peri-urban agriculture during rapid urbanization of Jabodetabek Metropolitan Area. Politique d’aménagement du territoire.

Profilo, V. (2024). Biophilic cities. Available online: https://verdeprofilo.com/en/biophilic-cities/ (accessed on 11 December 2024).

Purvis, B., Mao, Y., & Robinson, D. (2018). Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins. Sustainability Science, 14(3), 681–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5

Putman, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. APA PsycInfo.

Raphaël, A. A., Owusu, A., Charles, P., & Stephen, A. T. (2019). A review of practices for sustaining urban and peri-urban agriculture: Implications for land use planning in rapidly urbanising Ghanaian cities. Land Use Policy.

Renard, K. G. (1997). Predicting soil erosion by water: A guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). USDA Agricultural Research Service, Agriculture Handbook.

Ruiz, P. A., & Josep, L. T. (2015). Rethinking the city: strategies for sustainable urban development in Latin America’s medium-sized cities (Spanish). Revista Nodo.

Saint Lucia Fisher Folk Cooperative Society Ltd. (2024). Value addition/Creation of organic bio-stimulants for the agriculture industry using Sargassum seaweed which has an environmental, economic and social impact in a poor region of Saint Lucia. Available online: https://www.equatorinitiative.org/2017/06/21/value-addition-creation-of-organic-bio-stimulants-for-the-agriculture-industry-using-sargassum-seaweed-which-has-an-environmental-economic-and-social-impact-in-a-poor-region-of-saint-lucia/ (accessed on 2 November 2024).

Sakketa, T. G. (2023). Urbanization and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of pathways and impacts. Research in Globalization.

Sambo, DC. (2012). Assessment of the performance of small-scale water infrastructure (SWI) for multiple uses in nebo plateau, Sekhukhune District, South Africa. University of KwaZulu-Natal. Available online: https://efwe.ukzn.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Sambo_C.pdf (accessed on 11 November 2024).

Santoso, S. (2021). Relationship between Social Media, Organizational Support, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control to Form Entrepreneurial Intention. Expert Journal of Business and Management.

Satterthwaite, D., McGranahan G., Tacoli, C. (2010). Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Société royale.

Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. The Free Press. London: Collier-Macmillan.

Silva, C. N. (2015). Urban Planning in Sub-Saharan Africa. Routledge.

Sunkavilli Ravi, K., Yudheera, K., Yella, R., et al. (2023). Association between periodontitis and preterm low birth weight in human immunodeficiency virus seropositive pregnant women in India: A cohort study. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 7830-7835. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1203_22

Teadoum, N. F., Tob-Ro, N., Allarané, N., et al. (2024). Factors hindering the implementation of urban planning tools in Central Africa: Case study of reference urban plan for Sarh Town (Chad). Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(13), 8409. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd8409

UN. Population Division. (2014). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision. Etats Unis: Google scholar.

UN-Habitat. (2014). A New Strategy of Sustainable Neighbourhood Planning: Five principles - Urban Planning. Nairobi.

Veolia, I. (2021). Water, waste, energy: what future for essential services in Africa? (French). FACTS Reports.

Véron, J. (2020). Should we be afraid of the world’s population? (French). Points Essais.

W, H. (2008). How Urban Planning Works?. howstuffworks.

Wei, Y. D., & Ewing, R. (2018). Urban expansion, sprawl and inequality. Landscape and Urban Planning.

Weiss, R. D. (2022). Civic Engagement and Participation in the 21st Century. Journal of Community Development.

WH, W., & DD, S. (1960). Équation universelle de perte de sol. Amérique: ministère américain de l’Agriculture .

Wischmeier, W., & Smith, D. (1978). Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses: A Guide to Conservation Planning. Environmental Science.

World Urbanisation. (2018). Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. Available online: https://www.un.org/en/desa/2018-revision-world-urbanization-prospects (accessed on 11 November 2024).

Yemmafouo, A. (2013). Urbanization and peri-urban spaces in sub-Saharan Africa (French). Cameroun.

Yvonne, R., Ana, B., Michael, D., et al. (2012). Shaping cities for health: complexity and the planning of urban environments in the 21st century. Elsevier.

Zheng J. J., Kamal A. M., & Ullah, A. (2020). The direct and indirect effects of China’s wastewater treatment service on urban household wastewater discharge. Groth and changes.