This paper aims to investigate and compare different wine packaging options, with a focus on improving the environmental sustainability of the wine industry. The traditional glass wine bottle, while iconic, contributes significantly to the carbon footprint of wine production, accounting for approximately 30% of the environmental impact. Winemakers are actively exploring alternative packaging solutions, such as bag-in-box, Tetra Pak, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles and cans, to reduce the industry’s overall environmental footprint. The research not only examines the impact of different packaging options on wine quality, but also addresses broader sustainability considerations, including waste management, recycling challenges, degradation concerns and ecotoxicological issues. The exploration of consumer expectations and trends adds a crucial dimension, recognising that sustainable packaging is not only in line with environmental objectives, but also with evolving consumer preferences and industry trends. This comprehensive research aims to inform the wine industry of the implications and potential benefits of adopting greener packaging practices.

1. Owen J. Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave. National Geographic News; 2011.

2. Mooney C. Storing wine through time. The Wire; 2020.

3. Brenni GMR. The Dolia and the Sea-Borne Commerce of Imperial Rome. Texas A&M University. 1985.

4. Silver SS. Wine in the ancient world. Early Church History.

5. Ferrara C, De Feo G. Life Cycle Assessment Application to the Wine Sector: A Critical Review. Sustainability. 2018; 10(2): 395. doi: 10.3390/su10020395

6. Ferrara C, Zigarelli V, De Feo G. Attitudes of a sample of consumers towards more sustainable wine packaging alternatives. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020; 271: 122581. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122581

7. Gazulla C, Raugei M, Fullana-i-Palmer P. Taking a life cycle look at crianza wine production in Spain: where are the bottlenecks? The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 2010; 15(4): 330-337. doi: 10.1007/s11367-010-0173-6

8. Point E, Tyedmers P, Naugler C. Life cycle environmental impacts of wine production and consumption in Nova Scotia, Canada. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2012; 27: 11-20. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.12.035

9. Rugani B, Vázquez-Rowe I, Benedetto G, et al. A comprehensive review of carbon footprint analysis as an extended environmental indicator in the wine sector. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2013; 54: 61-77. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.04.036

10. Mol APJ, Spaargaren G, Sonnenfeld DA. Ecological Modernization Theory: Taking Stock, Moving Forward., in Routledge International Handbook of Social and Environmental Change. 2013. pp. 31–46.

11. Ajzen I. From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. Action-control: From cognition to behavior. In: Beckmann I.J.K.J (editor). Springer. 1985.

12. Ajzen I. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 1991. 50(2): 179-211.

13. Rogers E. Diffusion of Innovations, 5th edition. Simon and Schuster; 2003.

14. Bohlen JM, Beal GM. The Diffusion Process, in Farm Foundation. 1956. pp. 111–121.

15. Keller KL. Brand Synthesis: The Multidimensionality of Brand Knowledge. Journal of Consumer Research. 2003; 29(4): 595-600. doi: 10.1086/346254

16. Aaker DA. Managing Brand Equity. The Free Press; 1991.

17. Bhasin H. Extended Marketing Mix. 2023.

18. Pineda ME. Theories of Corporate Social Responsibility. 2020.

19. AWRI. Wine History. 2015.

20. Bianco E, Diab S, Blanco H. Green hydrogen for industry: A guide to policy making, in International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, IRENA, Editor. 2022.

21. Cremonese L, Mbungu GK, Quitzow R. The sustainability of green hydrogen: An uncertain proposition. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2023; 48(51): 19422-19436. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.01.350

22. Fan Z, Ochu E, Braverman S, et al. Green hydrogen in a circular carbon economy: opportunities and limits. 2021, Center of Global Energy Policy: Columbia, SIPA.

23. Benson I. European container glass industry to reduce emissions with green furnace. 2020.

24. Hirlam K, Longbottom M, Wilkes E, et al. Understanding the greenhouse gas emissions of Australian wine production. Wine & Viticulture Journal, 2023. 38(2): 34-36.

25. Longbottom M. Measuring the environmental footprint of Australian grapes and wine, in Grapegrower & Winemaker. 2023.

26. Abbott T, Longbottom M, Wilkes E, et al. Assessing the environmental credentials of Australian wine. Wine & Viticulture Journal, 2016. 31(1): 35-37.

27. Cleary J. Life cycle assessments of wine and spirit packaging at the product and the municipal scale: a Toronto, Canada case study. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2013; 44: 143-151. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.01.009

28. Amienyo D, Camilleri C, Azapagic A. Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2014; 72: 110-119. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.044

29. Fusi A, Guidetti R, Benedetto G. Delving into the environmental aspect of a Sardinian white wine: From partial to total life cycle assessment. Science of The Total Environment. 2014; 472: 989-1000. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.148

30. Ponstein HJ, Ghinoi S, Steiner B. How to increase sustainability in the Finnish wine supply chain? Insights from a country of origin based greenhouse gas emissions analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019; 226: 768-780. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.088

31. Shirakura A, Nakaya M, Koga Y, et al. Diamond-like carbon films for PET bottles and medical applications. Thin Solid Films. 2006; 494(1-2): 84-91. doi: 10.1016/j.tsf.2005.08.366

32. Van Bree I, De Meulenaer B, Samapundo S, et al. Predicting the headspace oxygen level due to oxygen permeation across multilayer polymer packaging materials: A practical software simulation tool. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 2010; 11(3): 511-519. doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2010.01.007

33. Liu RYF, Hu YS, Schiraldi DA, et al. Crystallinity and oxygen transport properties of PET bottle walls. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2004; 94(2): 671-677. doi: 10.1002/app.20905

34. Ros-Chumillas M, Belissario Y, Iguaz A, et al. Quality and shelf life of orange juice aseptically packaged in PET bottles. Journal of Food Engineering. 2007; 79(1): 234-242. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.01.048

35. Wine in glass or plastic bottles? Available online: https://medium.com/@GarconWines/wine-in-glass-or-plastic-bottles-376d3c1dfd11 (accessed on 26 October 2017).

36. A Preliminary Analysis of PET Barrier Technologies and Mechanical Performance Related to a 3L PET Wine Bottle, in Department of Packaging Science. 2008, Rochester Institute of Technology.

37. Amcor Unveils Modern PET Bottle Concepts and Collaboration with Garçon Wines at Unified Wine and Grape Symposium. Available online: https://www.amcor.com/media/news/amcor-unveil-pet-bottle-concepts-and-collaboration-with-garcon-wines (accessed on 12 November 2020).

38. Simon B, Amor MB, Földényi R. Life cycle impact assessment of beverage packaging systems: focus on the collection of post-consumer bottles. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2016; 112: 238-248. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.008

39. Geueke B, Groh K, Muncke J. Food packaging in the circular economy: Overview of chemical safety aspects for commonly used materials. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018; 193: 491-505. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.005

40. Schnettler B, Miranda H, Sepúlveda J, et al. Acceptance of national and store brands of wine by supermarket consumers in the South of Chile. Ciência Técnica Vitivinícola, 2012.

41. Revi M, Badeka A, Kontakos S, et al. Effect of packaging material on enological parameters and volatile compounds of dry white wine. Food Chemistry. 2014; 152: 331-339. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.11.136

42. Kalkowski J. Brining Innovation to Bag-in-Box. Packaging Digest: Oak Brook. 2014.

43. Robertson GL. Food Packaging Principles and Practice. 2006: CRC Press.

44. Fradique S, Hogg TA, Pereira JR, et al. Performance of Wine Bag-in-Box during Storage: Loss of Oxygen Barrier. Italian Journal of Food Science. 2011; 23: 11-16.

45. Weed A. Canned Wine Comes of Age. Wine Spectator. 2019.

46. Patterson T. How Good Is That Wine Bag, Really? Wine Communications Group. 2010.

47. IVA. Tetra Pak. Available online: https://www.iva.se/en/ (accessed on 15 April 2021).

48. Tetra Pak in Figures. Available online: https://www.tetrapak.com/about-tetra-pak/the-company/facts-figures (accessed on 15 April 2021).

49. Tetra Pak Packaging Material—Packed with Innovation. Available online: https://youtu.be/fR-esiS1Pn0 (accessed on 15 April 2021).

50. Packaging/Materials. Available online: https://www.tetrapak.com/insights/business-areas/packaging-insights (accessed on 20 November 2020).

51. Tetra Pak Prisma. Available online: https://www.tetrapak.com/en-us/solutions/packaging/packages/tetra-prisma-aseptic (accessed on 15 April 2021).

52. Thompson K. Wine Packaging Alternatives Not All Good Wine Comes in Glass Bottles. Available online: https://www.iopp.org/files/public/ThompsonKatherineVT.pdf (accessed on 1 October 2020).

53. Gannon S. Pushing the Packaging Envelope-Alternative Formats and Closures Growing Fast in Volume Sales. Wine Communications Group. 2009.

54. Coetzee C. The winemaker’s guide to wine in a can, ed. W. Karien O’Kennedy. 2021.

55. Warrener C. The advantages of canned wine: convenience and sustainability. 2023.

56. Pinney T. History of Wine in America. University of California Press. 2005.

57. Williams M. Is the Future of Wine in the Can? Forbes. 2020.

58. Geueke B. FPF Dossier: Can Coatings. Food Packaging. 2016.

59. Pires EJ, Teixeira JA, Brányik T, et al. Yeast: the soul of beer’s aroma—a review of flavour-active esters and higher alcohols produced by the brewing yeast. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2014; 98(5): 1937-1949. doi: 10.1007/s00253-013-5470-0

60. Weed A. Canned Wine Sales Are Bursting at the Seams. Wine Spectator. 2020.

61. Bekker MZ, Kreitman GY, Jeffery DW, et al. Liberation of Hydrogen Sulfide from Dicysteinyl Polysulfanes in Model Wine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2018; 66(51): 13483-13491. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b04690

62. Trela BC. Wine preservation in aluminium containers. ASEV-Eastern section Geneva. 2019.

63. Sacks GL. Personal Communication. Cornell University. 2021.

64. Squire S. Making wine for cans: what you need to know. 2021.

65. Scrimgeour N, Hirlam K, Wilkes E, et al. Extending the shelf life of canned wines. Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker. 2020. pp. 68-71.

66. Bio’teille-The new ecological wine bottle. Available online: https://le-petit-baroudeur.com/the-bioteille/(accessed on 19 November 2021).

67. Helmenstine AM. The composition and properties of glass. 2019.

68. Moshood TD, Nawanir G, Mahmud F, et al. Sustainability of biodegradable plastics: New problem or solution to solve the global plastic pollution? Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. 2022; 5: 100273. doi: 10.1016/j.crgsc.2022.100273

69. Flaws J. Plastics, EDCs % Health. 2020.

70. McGovern G. How Bauxite Mining Destroys Nature and Communities. 2023.

71. Australia W. Cost, climate, consumers: influences on changes in wine packaging. 2023.

72. Ferrara C, De Feo G. Comparative life cycle assessment of alternative systems for wine packaging in Italy. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020; 259: 120888. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120888

73. Barber N. “Green” wine packaging: targeting environmental consumers. International Journal of Wine Business Research. 2010; 22(4): 423-444. doi: 10.1108/17511061011092447

74. Sáenz-Navajas MP, Ballester J, Peyron D, et al. Extrinsic attributes responsible for red wine quality perception: A cross-cultural study between France and Spain. Food Quality and Preference. 2014; 35: 70-85. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.02.005

75. Velasco C, Spence C. Multisensory Premiumness. In: Velasco, C., Spence, C. (editors). Multisensory Packaging. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94977-2_10

76. Torres-Ruiz FJ. The perception of quality in the process of olive oil tasting: The effects of packaging attributes. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment, 2013.

77. Luxury Redefined for the New Age Consumer, in LuXepack Monaco. 2021.

78. Jancis RJ. [Robinson] hates heavy wine bottles, as I do. Why do winemakers use them? 2014.

79. D'Vari M. 7 Innovative Packaging Trends to Make You Happy. 2020.

80. Guseva N. What can the wine industry teach us about sustainability? 2021, AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND BEVERAGE: World economic forum. Available online: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/what-can-the-wine-industry-teach-us-about-sustainability/ (accessed on 20 March 2024).

81. Poças F, Couto JA, Hogg TA. Wine packaging and related sustainability issues. Improving Sustainable Viticulture and Winemaking Practices. Published online 2022: 371-390. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-323-85150-3.00001-3

82. Moyle R, Packwine Forum & Expo. Sustainable packaging for the wine industry and what the 2025 National Packaging Targets will mean for businesses. Available online: https://packwine.com.au/news/2021-speaker-ralph-moyle/ (accessed on 20 March 2024).

83. Arreza J. Sustainable wine packaging in focus. Available online: https://www.packagingnews.com.au/beverage/sustainable-wine-packaging-in-focus (accessed on 20 March 2024).

84. Nicasio F. Why You Need to Offer Sustainable Packaging—and How to Do It Right. Available online: https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/sustainable-packaging/ (accessed on 20 March 2024).

85. Boz Z, Korhonen V, Sand CK. Consumer Considerations for the Implementation of Sustainable Packaging: A Review. Sustainability, 2020; 12(6), 2192.